Morphology vs. syntax,

Morphology vs. syntax,

the classification

the classification

of morphemes

of morphemes

February 28th

February 28th

What is a morpheme?

What is a morpheme?



The smallest individually meaningful

The smallest individually meaningful

element in the utterance of

element in the utterance of

a language, cf. Hockett (1958);

a language, cf. Hockett (1958);



Morphemes are commonly classified

Morphemes are commonly classified

into

into

free

free

morphemes

morphemes

(which can

(which can

occur as separate words) and

occur as separate words) and

bound

bound

morphemes

morphemes

(which can't stand alone

(which can't stand alone

as words).

as words).



The utterance given below could be

The utterance given below could be

decomposed into the following

decomposed into the following

elements:

elements:

the:small:est:individu:al:ly:mean:ing:ful:elem

the:small:est:individu:al:ly:mean:ing:ful:elem

ent

ent

It can be seen that a given word may be composed

It can be seen that a given word may be composed

of several morphemes;

of several morphemes;

Schematically:[[[mean]ing]ful]

Schematically:[[[mean]ing]ful]

In the previous example,

In the previous example,

the innermost

the innermost

morpheme

morpheme

is termed the

is termed the

root

root

as it is not

as it is not

further analysable into further elements;

further analysable into further elements;

More peripheral morphemes are called

More peripheral morphemes are called

affixes,

affixes,

which are examples of

which are examples of

bound

bound

morphemes

morphemes

as they can never appear in

as they can never appear in

isolation. For example:

isolation. For example:

-ing, -ful;

-ing, -ful;

Free morphemes

Free morphemes



Free morphemes can function as

Free morphemes can function as

independent words; for example:

independent words; for example:

mean, element;

mean, element;

Empty morphemes

Empty morphemes



Units of form without corresponding

Units of form without corresponding

meaning;

meaning;



One may isolate the units:

One may isolate the units:

cran-

cran-



and

and

–berry

–berry

in the word

in the word

cranberry.

cranberry.

However, the units cannot function

However, the units cannot function

independently or in other

independently or in other

combinations. Subsequently,

combinations. Subsequently,

the meaning-based definition fails

the meaning-based definition fails

in this case.

in this case.

Morpheme –{es}

/z/ /s/

/Iz/ /Ən/

/ø/

Examples of decomposition

Examples of decomposition



{boy}+{-es}= /boɪz/

{boy}+{-es}= /boɪz/



{girl} + {-es}= /gɜlz/

{girl} + {-es}= /gɜlz/



{bus}+{-es}= /bʌs

{bus}+{-es}= /bʌs

I

I

z/

z/



{ox}+{-en}=/oks

{ox}+{-en}=/oks

Ə

Ə

n/

n/



{sheep}+{-es}=/∫i:p

{sheep}+{-es}=/∫i:p

ø

ø

/

/

Morphemes can be divided into free

Morphemes can be divided into free

and bound base.

and bound base.

Zero morpheme

Zero morpheme



Meaning functions without form;

Meaning functions without form;



cat

cat

=

=

cat

cat

+

+

-Ø

-Ø

= ROOT ("cat") + SINGULAR

= ROOT ("cat") + SINGULAR



cats

cats

=

=

cat

cat

+

+

-s

-s

= ROOT ("cat") + PLURAL

= ROOT ("cat") + PLURAL



In addition, there are some cases in English where a zero

In addition, there are some cases in English where a zero

morpheme indicates plurality in nouns that take on irregular

morpheme indicates plurality in nouns that take on irregular

plurals.

plurals.



sheep

sheep

=

=

sheep

sheep

+

+

-Ø

-Ø

= ROOT ("sheep") + SINGULAR

= ROOT ("sheep") + SINGULAR



sheep

sheep

=

=

sheep

sheep

+

+

-Ø

-Ø

= ROOT ("sheep") + PLURAL

= ROOT ("sheep") + PLURAL



Also, a null morpheme marks the present tense of

Also, a null morpheme marks the present tense of

verbs

verbs

in

in

all forms but the third person singular:

all forms but the third person singular:



(I) run

(I) run

=

=

run

run

+

+

-Ø

-Ø

= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: Non-3rd-

= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: Non-3rd-

SINGULAR

SINGULAR



(He) runs

(He) runs

=

=

run

run

+

+

-s

-s

= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: 3rd-

= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: 3rd-

SINGULAR

SINGULAR



Structure is the way in which

Structure is the way in which

elements are related to one another.

elements are related to one another.

The elements are responsible for

The elements are responsible for

organisation which results

organisation which results

in the sequence.

in the sequence.

We segment clauses and phrases into

We segment clauses and phrases into

words. Words consist of morphemes.

words. Words consist of morphemes.

Lexeme

Lexeme



The basic word form represented in

The basic word form represented in

many realisations.

many realisations.

The lexeme ‘matka’ may be

The lexeme ‘matka’ may be

represented by the following forms:

represented by the following forms:

matka, matce, matki, matek;

matka, matce, matki, matek;

The actual form will be used depending

The actual form will be used depending

on the structure of

on the structure of

the clause and function;

the clause and function;



Matka kupiła dziecku buty

Matka kupiła dziecku buty

The sentence is composed

The sentence is composed

of 4 lexemes:

of 4 lexemes:

Matk-, kupi-, dzieck-,

Matk-, kupi-, dzieck-,

but-;

but-;

Morph and allomorphs

Morph and allomorphs



Morph is a textual, context-sensitive

Morph is a textual, context-sensitive

realisation of a morpheme;

realisation of a morpheme;



Allomorphs are several distinct

Allomorphs are several distinct

morphs representing one morpheme;

morphs representing one morpheme;

Allomorphy

Allomorphy



Alternations in morphology are

Alternations in morphology are

conditioned phonologically,

conditioned phonologically,

grammatically (the distribution

grammatically (the distribution

depends on the gender of nouns, e.g.

depends on the gender of nouns, e.g.

‘noce’- feminine and lexically, e.g.

‘noce’- feminine and lexically, e.g.

‘dziecko’-’dzieci’ conditioned. When

‘dziecko’-’dzieci’ conditioned. When

we remove the ending ‘i’,

we remove the ending ‘i’,

what is left is an irregular alternant

what is left is an irregular alternant

‘dzieć’.

‘dzieć’.

Inflection vs. derivation

Inflection vs. derivation



One may distinguish two

One may distinguish two

subcomponents of morphology:

subcomponents of morphology:

-

derivation

derivation

- related to the word

- related to the word

formation of the new lexemes from

formation of the new lexemes from

the already existing ones;

the already existing ones;

-

inflection

inflection

-marking of such

-marking of such

morphosyntactic categories such as:

morphosyntactic categories such as:

number, person, gender, tense,

number, person, gender, tense,

mood and aspect.

mood and aspect.



Affixes

Affixes

(formatives) may be divided

(formatives) may be divided

into: derivational and inflectional

into: derivational and inflectional

ones;

ones;



Stem

Stem

is a part of the word-form,

is a part of the word-form,

which remains when all inflectional

which remains when all inflectional

affixes have been removed; e.g. the

affixes have been removed; e.g. the

Polsish participle

Polsish participle

płaczącego: płacz

płaczącego: płacz

is

is

a word stem –

a word stem –

ąc-

ąc-

and

and

–go

–go

are

are

inflectional morphemes (affixes).

inflectional morphemes (affixes).

Base

Base



This term is used in derivational

This term is used in derivational

morphology to refer to the lexeme

morphology to refer to the lexeme

from which more complex lexemes

from which more complex lexemes

are formed;

are formed;

Exercises in morphology,

Exercises in morphology,

part 1

part 1

Xerox copies

Xerox copies

Paradigm, syncretism

Paradigm, syncretism

and cumulative exponent

and cumulative exponent



Word-forms which represent a given

Word-forms which represent a given

lexeme are organised into

lexeme are organised into

paradigms- closed sets of forms.

paradigms- closed sets of forms.

Let’s consider the paradigms

Let’s consider the paradigms

of the noun declension of the Polish

of the noun declension of the Polish

word ‘kot’.

word ‘kot’.

Examples

Examples



There are 10 different forms

There are 10 different forms

representing one lexeme.

representing one lexeme.

‘

‘

kot’

kot’

sg

sg

pl

pl

Nominative kot

Nominative kot

kot-y

kot-y

Genitive

Genitive

kot-a

kot-a

kot-ów

kot-ów

Dative

Dative

kot-u

kot-u

kot-om

kot-om

Acc.

Acc.

Kot-a

Kot-a

kot-y

kot-y

Instrumental kot-em

Instrumental kot-em

kot-ami

kot-ami

Ablative

Ablative

kocie

kocie

kot-ach

kot-ach

Vov.

Vov.

O kocie!

O kocie!

O koty!

O koty!



The information about

The information about

the case, gender and number is

the case, gender and number is

encoded in the formative

encoded in the formative

-em, which is termed a cumulative

-em, which is termed a cumulative

exponent;

exponent;

Syncretism

Syncretism



The merging of different inflectional

The merging of different inflectional

varieties of a word during

varieties of a word during

the development of a language.

the development of a language.

Derivational morphology

Derivational morphology



Derivational morphology deals with

Derivational morphology deals with

processes responsible for forming

processes responsible for forming

new lexemes. Ona may distinguish 2

new lexemes. Ona may distinguish 2

processes responsible for

processes responsible for

the conveyance of new lexemes,

the conveyance of new lexemes,

which is presented in the following

which is presented in the following

diagram.

diagram.

Derivational processes

Concatenative processes

Non-concatenative processes

Concatenative processes-

Concatenative processes-

consiting in placing two

consiting in placing two

recognisable elements side by

recognisable elements side by

side

side

Concatenative processes

Affixation

Compounding

Non-concatenative

Non-concatenative

processes

processes

Non-concatenative processes

Zero derivation (conversion)

Back derivation

Word manufacturing

Back derivation

Back derivation



Back-formation

Back-formation

is the process of

is the process of

creating a new lexeme, usually by

creating a new lexeme, usually by

removing actual or supposed affixes,

removing actual or supposed affixes,

e.g.

e.g.

insert/insertion

insert/insertion

,

,

project/projection

project/projection

,

,

Conversion

Conversion



It is also called

It is also called

zero derivation

zero derivation

,

,

which is a kind of word formation;

which is a kind of word formation;

specifically, it is the creation

specifically, it is the creation

of a word from an existing word

of a word from an existing word

without any change in form, e.g.

without any change in form, e.g.

from the adjective ‘clean’ we form

from the adjective ‘clean’ we form

a verb: ‘to clean’.

a verb: ‘to clean’.

Word manufacturing

Clipping

Blending

Acronymisation

Acronymization

Acronymization



The process in which

The process in which

abbreviations

abbreviations

are formed from the initial

are formed from the initial

components in a phrase or a word.

components in a phrase or a word.

These components may be individual

These components may be individual

letters (as in

letters (as in

CEO

CEO

) or parts of words

) or parts of words

(as in

(as in

Benelux

Benelux

and

and

Ameslan

Ameslan

(American Slang Language)

(American Slang Language)

).

).

Blending

Blending



The beginning of one word is added

The beginning of one word is added

to the end of the other. For example,

to the end of the other. For example,

brunch

brunch

is a blend of

is a blend of

br

br

eakfast

eakfast

and

and

l

l

unch

unch

.

.

Clipping

Clipping



clipping

clipping

is the

is the

word

word

formation

formation

process which consists

process which consists

in the reduction of a word to one of

in the reduction of a word to one of

its parts, e.g.

its parts, e.g.

exam

exam

(ination),

(ination),

math

math

(ematics), and

(ematics), and

lab

lab

(oratory).

(oratory).

Exercises in morphology,

Exercises in morphology,

part 2

part 2

Xerox copies

Xerox copies

References

References



Szymanek, B. (1998).

Szymanek, B. (1998).

Introduction to

Introduction to

Morphological Analysis.

Morphological Analysis.

Warszawa: PWN.

Warszawa: PWN.



Quirk, R. (1980).

Quirk, R. (1980).

A Grammar of

A Grammar of

Contemporary English

Contemporary English

. London: Longman.

. London: Longman.



Hockett, C. (1958). A course in modern

Hockett, C. (1958). A course in modern

linguistics. Toronto: Macmillan.

linguistics. Toronto: Macmillan.



http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syn

http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syn

cretism; 09.04.12;

cretism; 09.04.12;