0. Language and the World

Language is used to describe the world. The world has a complex structure including objects, properties, relations, activities, modes, etc. All those elements of the world must be named. The names are given to those various categories by people.

Examples: table, lamp, red, blue, in, over, write, eat, fast, eagerly, etc.

1. parts of speech: (lexical categories) lexical expression of categories in the

world: objects, states of objects, actions of objects, relations between objects, modes of actions and states, etc.

substantives: (referring to substance)

A. nouns typically refer to entities (objects and abstract entities)

2. pronouns are abbreviations of nouns (referring to objects and entities)

C. verbs refer to actions and states

modifiers:

D. adjectives describe properties of objects

5. adverbs describe the mode of actions and states

F. prepositions describe spatial relations between objects

G. conjunctions refer to other relations between elements; used to bind discourse

together

H.interjections (exclamations) are words expressing emotions

(+ Articles and Determiners in some grammars)

2. TYPES OF PHRASES:

Noun phrase (NP):

Verb phrase (VP)

Prepositional phrase (PP)

Adjectival phrase (AP)

Adverbial phrase (Adv Phrase)

3. NOUN PHRASE:

Noun Phrase constituents

The head - a constitutent around which the other constituents cluster and which determines concord with other parts of the sentence.

The tall girl…

The girl standing in the corner…

determinatives:

Articles, demonstrative pronouns, numerals, quantitatives

all the furniture, both those musicians, the many new offices

premodIfication - (by adjective or noun, stands between determinatives and head

some expensive furniture, some very expensive furniture,

some very expensive office furniture

POSTMODIFICATION: (prepositional phrase; relative clause, reduced clause)

The road to Lincoln; the house beyond the church; a book on grammar;

Snakes which are poisonous should be avoided, the person writing reports; the car repaired by that mechanic

Grammatical categories related to nouns:

1…………………………………..

2…………………………………..

3. …………………………………

Exercise 1: Singular or plural?

Man-of war, lice, roof, pence, manservant, spoonful, series, salmon, passer-by, wharf, sheaf, close-up, shears, hoof, cacti, analysis, stimuli, strata, datum, vertebrae, basis, fungus, genera, index, crises, criteria, ovum, loaves, loss, cupful, species, sheep, gin-and-tonic, ships, sheep, dilemma, eel, stairs, memoranda, stadium, museum, addenda, radii, drama, appendices, lens, axis, media, album, phenomena, chrysanthemum

Exercise 2: Give the feminine of:

Bachelor, bridegroom, master, horse, emperor, gander, ram, wizard, manservant, count, landlord, fox, Sir, hen, nun, drake, lad, usher, duke, earl, stag

4. VERB PHRASE:

Major verb classes:

full verbs (or lexical verbs) - open class: leave, write, walk, etc.

primary verbs - be, have, and do

modal verbs - will, may, can, etc.

In a sentence: MAIN VERBS vs AUXILIARY VERBS

full verbs function as MAIN VERBS only; modal Verbs as auxiliary verbs (hence they are often called MODAL AUXILIARIES, and primary verbs as both main verbs and auxiliaries.

Exercise: Identify types of verbs in the following sentences:

I go to school every day

She is reading a book now.

She may be waiting outside.

Jane couldn't have done a thing like that.

She should have been given more time yeasterday.

He has just gone abroad.

I have a big house with a garden

Grammatical categories related to verbs (Contrasts expressed in the verb phrase):

1. tense

2. aspect

3.mood

4.finiteness

5. voice

6. questions

7. negation

8. emphasis

full verbs:

Five morphological forms:

base form call, want, speak, cut, win

-s form calls, wants, speaks, cuts, wins

-ing participle calling, wanting, speaking, cutting, winning

Past form called, wanted, spoke, cut, won

-ed participle called, wanted, spoken, cut, won

puchnąć
	sew
			quit
	swing
		bled
wieszać
			shrunk
	flee
		stuck
gryźć
		lit
	strike
rozsypać, rozlać
			flowed
		sat
	shine
podnosić coś
			lain
	bind

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