Exchange of Goods and Ideas between Cyprus and Crete in the ‚Dark Ages’

MANFRED BIETAK, ERNST CZERNY (EDITORS)

THE SYNCHRONISATION OF CIVILISATIONS IN THE EASTERN

MEDITERRANEAN IN THE SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. III

TITBIET_berger_neu.PMD

18.06.2007, 11:19

Ö S T E R R E I C H I S C H E A K A D E M I E D E R W I S S E N S C H A F T E N

DENKSCHRIFTEN DER GESAMTAKADEMIE, BAND XXXVII

Contributions to the Chronology

of the Eastern Mediterranean

Edited by Manfred Bietak

and Hermann Hunger

Volume IX

TITBIET_berger_neu.PMD

18.06.2007, 11:19

Ö S T E R R E I C H I S C H E A K A D E M I E D E R W I S S E N S C H A F T E N

DENKSCHRIFTEN DER GESAMTAKADEMIE, BAND XXXVII

THE SYNCHRONISATION OF CIVILISATIONS

IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN IN THE

SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. III

Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2

EuroConference

Vienna, 28

of May – 1

of June 2003

Edited

MANFRED BIETAK and ERNST CZERNY

Editorial Committee: Irene Kaplan and Angela Schwab

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18.06.2007, 11:19

Vorgelegt von w. M. M

ANFRED

IETAK

in der Sitzung am 24. Juni 2005

Gedruckt mit Unterstützung der European Commission, High-level Scientific Conferences

www.cordis.lu/improving/conferences

Spezialforschungsbereich SCIEM 2000

„Die Synchronisierung der Hochkulturen im östlichen Mittelmeerraum

im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr.“

der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften

beim Fonds zur Förderung

der wissenschaftlichen Forschung.

ISBN 978-3-7001-3527-2

Grafik, Satz, Layout: Angela Schwab

Druck: Druckerei Ferdinand Berger & Söhne GesmbH, Horn

Printed and bound in Austria

http://hw.oeaw.ac.at/3527-2

http://verlag.oeaw.ac.at

Special Research Programme SCIEM 2000

„The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean

in the Second Millennium B.C.“

of the Austrian Academy of Sciences at the Austrian Science Fund

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data.

A Catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library.

Die verwendete Papiersorte ist aus chlorfrei gebleichtem Zellstoff hergestellt,

frei von säurebildenden Bestandteilen und alterungsbeständig.

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18.06.2007, 11:19

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANFRED

IETAK

, E

RNST

ZERNY

, Preface by the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TIIO

:: H

IIG

H A

ANFRED

IETAK

and F

ELIX

ÖFLMAYER

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CIIE

E A

ALCOLM

H. W

IENER

Times Change: The Current State of the Debate in Old World Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ICHLER

, B

ARBARA

UMA

, H

EINZ

UBER

, and A

NDREAS

USILEK

Distinction of Pre-Minoan Pumice from Santorini, Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ICHLER

, H

EINZ

UBER

, and P

ETER

ARREN

Project Thera Ashes – Pumice Sample from Knossos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

ENDRIK

J. B

RUINS

Charcoal Radiocarbon Dates of Tell el-Dab

a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ENDRIK

J. B

RUINS

, A

MIHAI

AZAR

, and J

OHANNES VAN DER

LICHT

The End of the 2

Millennium BCE and the Transition from Iron I to Iron IIA: Radiocarbon

Dates of Tel Rehov, Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TURT

W. M

ANNING

Clarifying the ‘High’ v. ‘Low’ Aegean/Cypriot Chronology for the Mid Second Millennium BC:
Assessing the Evidence, Interpretive Frameworks, and Current State of the Debate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101

ICOLAS

J.G. P

EARCE

, J

OHN

A. W

ESTGATE

, S

HERI

J. P

REECE

, W

ARREN

J. E

ASTWOOD

ILLIAM

T. P

ERKINS

, and J

OANNA

S. H

ART

Reinterpretation of Greenland Ice-core Data Recognises the Presence of the Late
Holocene Aniakchak Tephra (Alaska), not the Minoan Tephra (Santorini), at 1645 BC. . . . . . . . . . . . .

139

LAN

HARON

, A

YELET

ILBOA

, and E

LISABETTA

OARETTO

C and the Early Iron Age of Israel – Where are we really at? A Commentary on the

Tel Rehov Radiometric Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149

ROŠ

NDERLI

…

and M

ARIA

G. F

IRNEIS

First Lunar Crescents for Babylon in the 2

Millennium B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

157

GIIC

L A

GIIC

:: E

ENNETH

A. K

ITCHEN

Egyptian and Related Chronologies – Look, no Sciences, no Pots! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

163

OLF

RAUSS

An Egyptian Chronology for Dynasties XIII to XXV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

173

ATHERINA

SLANIDOU

Some Ornamental Scenes on the Wall Paintings from Tell el Dab

a: Iconography and Context . . . . . .

191

AVID

A. A

STON

Kom Rabi

a, Ezbet Helmi, and Saqqara NK 3507. A Study in Cross-Dating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

207

ETTINA

ADER

A Tale of Two Cities: First Results of a Comparison Between Avaris and Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

249

ANFRED

IETAK

Bronze Age Paintings in the Levant: Chronological and Cultural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

269

005_012 Contents.qxd 04.06.2007 16:57 Seite 5

ERLA

USCALDO

Tell el-Dab

a: Some Remarks on the Pottery from

Ezbet Helmi

(Areas H/III and H/VI, Strata e/1 and d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

301

ELEN

ACQUET

-G

ORDON

A Habitation Site at Karnak North Prior to the New Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

317

EODOZJA

ZEUSKA

Some Remarks on the Egyptian kernoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

325

GIIC

L A

GIIC

:: T

T A

RIIA

ANDRA

NTONETTI

Intra moenia Middle Bronze Age Burials at Tell es-Sultan: A Chronological Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . .

337

ICHAL

RTZY

Tell Abu Hawam: News from the Late Bronze Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

357

RANS VAN

OPPEN

Syrian Trade Routes of the Mari Age and MB II Hazor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

367

ARIO

A.S. M

ARTIN

A Collection of Egyptian and Egyptian-style Pottery at Beth Shean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

375

IRKO

OVÁK

Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations. . . . .

389

UCA

EYRONEL

Late Old Syrian Fortifications and Middle Syrian Re-Occupation on the Western Rampart
at Tell Mardikh-Ebla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

403

IEVERTSEN

New Research on Middle Bronze Age Chronology of Western Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

423

EAN

-P

AUL

HALMANN

A Seldom Used Parameter in Pottery Studies: the Capacity of Pottery Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

431

GIIC

L A

GIIC

:: T

,, C

S A

INDY

REWE

The Foundation of Enkomi: A New Analysis of the Stratigraphic Sequence and
Regional Ceramic Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

439

ALTER

AUSS

and R

UDOLFINE

METANA

Early and Middle Bronze Age Stratigraphy and Pottery from Aegina Kolonna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

451

ETER

AVÚK

New Perspectives on Troia VI Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

473

ACKE

HILIPPS

The Amenhotep III ‘Plaques’ from Mycenae: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

479

Comparison, Contrast and a Question of Chronology

ETER

M. W

ARREN

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

495

A New Pumice Analysis from Knossos and the End of Late Minoan I A

TIIO

:: M

S A

HIIL

LIIS

TIIN

S IIN

N T

IGRID

EGER

-J

ALKOTZY

Section “Mycenaeans and Philistines in the Levant”: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

501

AUL

STRÖM

Sinda and the Absolute Chronology of Late Cypriote IIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

505

Contents

005_012 Contents.qxd 04.06.2007 16:57 Seite 6

Contents

RISTAN

J. B

ARAKO

Coexistence and Impermeability: Egyptians and Philistines in Southern Canaan
During the Twelfth Century BCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

509

SRAEL

INKELSTEIN

Is the Philistine Paradigm Still Viable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

517

LISABETH

RENCH

The Impact on Correlations to the Levant of the Recent Stratigraphic Evidence from the Argolid. . .

525

ARTA

UZOWSKA

and A

SSAF

ASUR

-L

ANDAU

The Mycenaean Pottery from Tel Aphek: Chronology and Patterns of Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

537

OPHOCLES

ADJISAVVAS

The Public Face of the Absolute Chronology for Cypriot Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

547

EINHARD

UNG

Tell Kazel and the Mycenaean Contacts with Amurru (Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

551

MIHAI

AZAR

Myc IIIC in the Land Israel: Its Distribution, Date and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

571

ENELOPE

A. M

OUNTJOY

The Dating of the Early LC IIIA Phase at Enkomi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

ONSTANCE VON

ÜDEN

Exchange Between Cyprus and Crete in the ‘Dark Ages’? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

595

AVID

SSISHKIN

Lachish and the Date of the Philistine Settlement in Canaan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

601

SSAF

ASUR

-L

ANDAU

Let’s Do the Time Warp again: Migration Processes and the Absolute Chronology of the
Philistine Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

609

HARON

UCKERMAN

Dating the Destruction of Canaanite Hazor without Mycenaean Pottery? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

621

005_012 Contents.qxd 20.06.2007 13:52 Seite 7

005_012 Contents.qxd 04.06.2007 16:57 Seite 8

University of Tübingen.

1971, 45–48, No. 93, 94, 104, 105, 106, pl. 27.

ARAGEORGHIS

1973, 57, Tomb 15, No. 13, Tomb 17, No. 26.

IERIDOU

1965, pl. XIII, 10, Tomb P. 74, No. 79, 98.

ANIEL

1937, 73, 26, 66, 86, 57, 49, pl. I, IV.

ARAGEORGHIS

1967, 20, figs. 8, 17.

OURTOIS

1971, 328.

AZAR

1994, 39–59.

E B

S A

E IIN

N T

‘‘D

’’ ??

This paper intends to discuss different kinds of

exchange between Crete and Cyprus during the so
called Dark Ages, referring respectively to the Sub-
minoan period (Crete) and to LC III B (Cyprus). In
comparison to the Late Bronze Age with its interre-
gional system of exchange throughout the Eastern
Mediterranean, the Dark Ages has traditionally been
seen as a period of regression and retreat, especially
in regard to interregional communication. Because
the archaeological data post-dating the collapse of
the Late Bronze Age system is scarce and because no
texts have been preserved, many studies concerning
the Dark Ages have been based on the idea of region-
ally isolated societies in economic retreat and lacking
in any standard of interregional communication.
New finds, however, and changing perspectives have
shed light on this picture and partly revised the idea
of complete isolation. In line with this revised theory
on the state of art in the Dark Ages, the following
essay will investigate the question with respect to
finds on Crete and Cyprus.

All material evidence indicating exchange through

import and in the form of stylistic parallels has been
examined against the background of the develop-
ment of settlements and of changes in the material
culture on both islands. In order to prevent a bias of
interpretation, theories of migration have been
ignored. Regarding the question of an exchange of
goods, all possible imports on Crete and Cyprus, those
of Cypriote and Cretan origin, as well as those of
other regions in the Eastern Mediterranean have
been taken into account. The phenomena of down-
the-line trade und trade centres rules out the option
of restricting the material base of evidence to Cretan
and Cypriote finds only.

The Cretan artefacts often considered as imports

have been less useful in trying to determine interre-
gional exchange, since their context is either

unknown or unreliable or cannot be exactly dated.
In some other cases the poor state of preservation
has prevented a stylistic or any other kind of exam-
ination as to the artefacts’ place or date of origin.
Under better circumstances, a transfer of ideas or
materials can be proven if the stylistic or scientific
characteristics of the imports and the find context
are able to be dated within the examined time
frame. Things are more promising in the case of
Cyprus. Here there is clear evidence for an LC III B
archaeological context for some of the imports.
One-handled and two-handled lentoid flasks of
South-Levantine origin have been found in Salamis
Tomb 1

and in the tombs of Alaas,

Lapithos,

Kourion

and Palaepaphos-Kouklia.

A scarab from

Enkomi,

dated stylistically to the 19

or 20

dynasty, should also be taken into account. Some
exchange, especially with the Southern Levant is
therefore to be assumed. CG I vessels from Israel,
furthermore, support this assumption.

But what do

these artefacts say about the range of this system of
exchange? Was it restricted to Cyprus and the
Southern Levant, or is it part of a far-reaching net-
work ranging throughout the Eastern Mediter-
ranean?

The extant data regarding imported goods on

Crete is too minimal to allow an adequate assess-
ment of the island’s involvement in an Eastern
Mediterranean communication system. Stylistic and
thematic parallels in the local Cretan and Cypriot
production do, however, hint at some kind of
exchange. Quite similar to the Late Bronze Age,
common stylistic and thematic elements in the dif-
ferent material cultures of the Eastern Mediter-
ranean are also characteristic for the Dark Ages.
Local production on Crete and Cyprus falls under
this category. The most popular examples of stylis-
tic and thematic parallels are the characteristics of

Constance von Rüden

595_600 R den.qxd 12.06.2007 10:23 Seite 595

the Proto-White Painted ware of Cyprus and the
Subminoan ware of

Crete.

But the question

remains: in which cases can they be accepted as gen-
uine proof of an exchange of style and decoration
during the Dark Ages?

Such parallels are to be considered as valid indica-

tions only if they cannot otherwise be explained in
the context of their local ceramic tradition. So, for
the present example of Cretan and Cypriot ware, it is
necessary to rule out all common features already
shared by the ceramic styles of both islands in the
Late Bronze Age. Most of the vessel shapes, in par-
ticular, had shown up on both islands during the
flourishing Late Aegean Bronze Age, so their appear-
ance in the Proto-White Painted and the Subminoan
repertoires cannot be taken as proof of materials
transfer or artistic communication. I.e., the possibili-
ty of a separate development rooted in the genuine
tradition of either island cannot be ruled out.

The exclusion of the above mentioned examples is

methodologically necessary, but there are other par-
allels between the two islands, which still have to be
considered in light of the question of a system of
exchange:

As Desborough already recognized, the pyxis with

vertical handles, rising from the flat base, is one such
example.

On Crete this special pyxis shape became

popular from LM III C onwards

and is comparable

with the few Proto-White Painted pyxides on
Cyprus, as the examples from Salamis and Palaepa-
phos show.

A singular pyxis with a ring base from a

III B stratum of Enkomi was classified by D

IKAIOS

as local LH III C and can be seen as a forerunner of
the Cypriot type.

Also, the painting on one Proto-White Painted

example, showing a goat, a bird and a person carry-
ing a kylix seems to have affinities to the closed style
of LM III C pottery on Crete.

Pieridou particular-

ly emphasizes the depiction of the goat, painted in
silhouette, as a Subminoan inspiration for Cypriot
animal depictions.

However, the LM III C ceramic

from Crete shows a preference for the open style, nor

could Y

find a suitable comparison in LM III B

ceramic.

The earliest example on Crete is, in fact, a

goat in silhouette on a Subminoan crater of the Gia-
malakis collection, and I

ACOVOU

showed clearly that

this manner of representation had been known in
Cyprus since the Late Bronze Age and that the Cre-
tan goat in silhouette more likely traces back to Lev-
antine or Cypriot prototypes.

On the one hand,

then, we have a transfer of the shape and perhaps
even some features of the painting from Crete to
Cyprus, while it is assumed, on the other hand, that
the goat in silhouette was passed from Cyprus or the
Levant on to Crete.

Another parallel is the duck vase with a basket-

handle, a simple spout instead of a head, and three
small elevations like legs. This vessel form appears on
both islands in the course of the Subminoan and LC
III B periods.

Even if we accept that duck vases in

general already existed on Cyprus, the variant con-
sidered in this study differs from its earlier counter-
parts.

The extreme similarities in shape and manner

of the examples from both islands rule out the expla-
nation of independent development in their respec-
tive local cultures. Therefore it must be assumed an
influence between the two islands, no matter which
direction– in opposition to Desborough and Pieridou,
who support the idea of a one-way transfer of the
duck vase from Crete to Cyprus without, however,
presenting an argument for their opinion.

The same results in the case of the amphoriskos

with false spout. The shape is quite popular in the
Proto-White Painted ware of Cyprus

and there are

few Cretan examples.

The shape cannot be traced

back earlier than to the Subminoan and LC III B
periods. The apparent spout, which is closed and
eventually became a rudimentary element, is such a
characteristic feature of this vessel that its separate
development on each island is hardly probable,
though it must be admitted that the direction of
influence cannot be determined.

The shape of the so called kantharos in the reper-

toire of Subminoan pottery is so similar to the exam-

Constance von Rüden

596

URUMARK

1944, 194–265; D

ESBOROUGH

1972, 112–133.

ESBOROUGH

1972, 62.

EIRADHAKI

1960, 18, fig. 12; S

ACKETT

OPHAM

1965, 289;

OPHAM

1967, 337–351, pl. 90b, c; H

ALL

1914, pl. 30;

ANTA

1980, 282, 4–5.

1971, 41, pl. 25, 79; M

AIER

1969, pl. III, 2; K

ARA

GEORGHIS

1965, 73, 1–7 ; P

IERIDOU

1973, 64.

IKAIOS

1969, pl. 82, 27.

ESBOROUGH

1972, 62, 56, fig. A.

IERIDOU

1973, 64.

1970, 311–17.

ACOVOU

1988, 81.

IERIDOU

1973, 68/69; H

ALL

1914, fig. 92, 1–2; D

ESBOR

OUGH

1972, 61.

EMOS

1994, 229–37.

ESBOROUGH

1972, 60–62, P

IERIDOU

1973, 68–69.

IERIDOU

1973, 20, pl. 7, No. 4–8.

ANTA

1980, 286.

595_600 R den.qxd 12.06.2007 10:23 Seite 596

Exchange between Cyprus and Crete in the ‘Dark Ages’ ?

ples in the Proto-White-Painted ceramic that it is
also interpreted as evidence of a certain connection
between the two islands.

It can be considered as a

sub-group of the earlier amphoroid crater, which had
been popular on both islands in the period preceding
the Dark Ages. The Subminoan

and Proto-White

Painted examples,

however, are smaller in size than

their predecessors and have a biconical body, a broad
conical foot, and the wide type of handles. The strik-
ing similarity in development of this shape, resulting
in a smaller variant in both repertoires, is not
explainable without assuming some kind of interre-
gional communication.

Another parallel is the depiction of a triangle

enclosing semicircles on the shoulder of a stirrup jar
(FS 177). This characteristic decoration system is
restricted to Cretan and Cypriot ceramic repertoires
originating in the period under study,

so that some

form of influence – regardless of the direction – is
probable. Even if the decoration system plays a sig-
nificant role in the Cretan context, Desborough’s
assumption of a Minoan origin is not necessary.

All these ceramic features appear on both islands

in the course of the Dark Ages. Even if an analogous
vessel form or a kind of decoration can be traced back
to similarities in the respective repertoires of the Late
Bronze Age, a characteristic item of the Dark Ages
example enable to distinguish it from the forerunner.
The idea of a one-way influence from one island to the
other cannot be confirmed. The uncertainties in
chronology are the greatest hindrance in determining
the direction of transfer. There are a few exceptions,
for which the direction of transfer seems clear, but
they do not seem to be homogeneous. The example of
the pyxis, for instance, suggests that a Cretan shape
influenced the development of a Cypriot analogy,
while the painting of a goat in silhouette suggests a
transfer the other way around. Based on some aspects
of the actual archaeological context, there seems to
have been a situation of mutual influence.

The interpretation of an exclusive system of

transfer between Crete and Cyprus in the Dark Ages
seems too limited. At the very least, vessel shapes like
the bottle-shaped vase, the kylix with swollen stem,
and the belly-handled amphora and amphoriskos,
which appeared on both islands in the course of the
Dark Ages, have to be regarded in a wider context.
The bottle-shaped vases from Karphi

and a Sub-

Mycenaean example of the Kerameikos in Attica

stand opposite the broad spectrum of Cypriot Proto-
White Painted vessels, whose prototype is assumed to
be from the Levant.

In none of the areas is the

shape documented earlier, so at least some form of
exchange must have taken place among these regions
during the period analysed in this study.

Also the shape of the kylix with the swollen

stem,

as mentioned above, is represented in all three

areas during this period and it can be even traced
back to the LH III C ware.

The same applies for the

belly-handled amphoras

and amphoriskoi.

Desbor-

oughs interpretation of the Minoan belly-handled
amphora as influenced by Cypriot ware

does not

represent the whole spectrum of interpretations. The
possible interpretation of an exchange is much wider,
and the Greek mainland has to be considered in the
context of such kind of exchange.

An interpretation based solely on imported goods

does not allow the reconstruction of a system of
exchange including both islands. An exchange of
goods can be established to some degree for Cyprus
and the Southern Levant, but there is no clear evi-
dence for Cretan involvement.

But how can we account for the mutual assimila-

tion of elements not able to be explained as indepen-
dent developments out of similar Late Bronze Age
ceramic traditions? Examples for the assimilation of
stylistic elements in the Late Bronze Age are plenty,
but in this period the high number of imports, which
could have inspired them, explain the phenomena
easily. It is not possible, however, to explain the sub-

597

ESBOROUGH

1972, 57.

EIRADAKI

1960, 1–37, fig. 14, 7, pl. 11b; K

ANTA

1980, 274.

IERIDOU

1973, 34, pl. 23, 4–9.

EIRADAKI

1960, 1–37, fig. 11, 1, 3.; H

ALL

1914, 150, fig. 89;

OOD

, Huxley, S

ANDARS

1958/59, 194–262, fig. 27; P

IERI

DOU

1973, 67/68.

EIRADAKI

1960, pl. 11b.

RAIKER

, K

ÜBLER

1939, pl. 27

IERIDOU

1973, 69.

LING

1989, 143, fig. 9d; P

IERIDOU

1973, 58; K

ANTA

1980,

264.

OUNTJOY

1986, 172, fig. 222.1.

OUNTJOY

1986, 202; P

IERIDOU

1973, 61, pl. 19, 4–6; H

OOD

UXLEY

, S

ANDERS

, 1958–59, 241, Fig 27: VII 2

OUNTJOY

1986, 121, 124; fig. 150, K

ANTA

1980, 166, P

IERI

DOU

1973, 60, pl. 18, 6–11, C

OLDSTREAM

, C

ATLING

1996, 303,

fig. 73; S

ACKETT

, P

OPHAM

1965, 295, fig. 15: P 23; S

EIRAD

HAKI

1960, 21, fig. 14, B

OYD

1901, pl. II, 8; H

ALL

1914, 146,

fig. 86d; B

ROCK

1957, pl. 3, 3.

ESBOROUGH

1973, 59.

595_600 R den.qxd 12.06.2007 10:23 Seite 597

sequent assimilations without assuming some kind of
exchange, regardless of whether the artefacts show-
ing these characteristics were imported or the
exchange of stylistic parallels occurred otherwise.

But what kind of system of exchange can we

assume for the Dark Ages? The palatial system of the
Late Bronze Age disappeared or at least decreased,
but this does not seem to have been the only level of
exchange conducted. The texts of Ugarit hint that
traders attained a certain independency from the
redistributive palatial system in the course of the
Late Bronze Age.

Furthermore, the different

descriptions of traders in Ugarit are interpreted by
Liverani as indications for the existence of official and
private kinds of traders.

The private traders must

have been free to regulate their administrative duties
themselves and must have had enough economic free-
dom to carry on the transfer into the Dark Ages.

The decrease in palatial exchange also led to alter-

ations in the character of the exchange. The palatial
demand for luxury goods from far away places
stopped, which resulted in the decrease of an impor-
tant archaeological source of evidence.

Cyprus, in particular, contains the potential for an

active participation in an interregional exchange dur-
ing this period. It is true that many changes are obvi-
ous in the local material culture of Cyprus, but
nonetheless it is also true that the settlement shift
occurring at the end of the Late Bronze Age resulted
furthermore in an orientation to the sea. Either this
happened out of habit, in spite of any possible dan-
gers, or the sea remained an indispensable factor for
the maintenance of subsistence level.

In conclusion, any study into the range of a sys-

tem of exchange involving Cyprus and Crete in the so
called Dark Ages must widen the perspective to
include the Eastern Mediterranean area and account
for the development on Cyprus. That done, the stylis-
tic and thematic parallels evident in the material cul-
tures of both islands must be interpreted as scant
archaeological remains of a much broader spectrum
of

exchange ranging throughout the Eastern

Mediterranean. Unfortunately the types of
exchange, the organizational structures, and the
goods transferred, all of which triggered the sort of
artistic and material assimilation described in this
article, cannot be determined on the basis of the pre-
sent state of art.

Constance von Rüden

598

RS 16.238: 1–11.

IVERANI

1962, 86.

595_600 R den.qxd 12.06.2007 10:23 Seite 598

Exchange between Cyprus and Crete in the ‘Dark Ages’ ?

OYD

AWES

, H., W

ILLIAMS

, B.E., and S

OAGER

, R.B.

1908

Gournia, Vasiliki and Other Prehistoric Sites on the
Isthmus of Hierapetra, Crete. Excavations of the Wells-
Housten-Cramp Expedition 1901, 1903, 1904,
Philadelphia.

ROCK

, J.K.

1957

Fortetsa. Early Greek Tombs near Knossos, BSA suppl,
2, Cambridge.

OLDSTREAM

, J.N. and C

ATLING

, H.W. (eds.)

1996

Knossos North Cemetery. Early Greek Tombs, vols. I–IV,
BSA Suppl. 28.

OURTOIS

, J.C.

1971

Dieu au l’ ingot d’ Enkomi-Alasia, 151–363, in: C.F.-A.
S

CHÄFER

(ed.) 1971.

ANIEL

, J.F.

1937

Late Cypriote III Tombs from Kourion, AJA 41, 56–85.

ESBOROUGH

, V.R. d’A.

1972

The Greek Dark Ages, London.

IKAIOS

, P.

1969

Enkomi, Excavations 1948–58, III A, Mainz am Rhein.

URUMARK

, A.

1941

The Mycenaean Pottery, Stockholm.

1944

The Mycenaean IIIC pottery and its relation to Cypri-
ot fabrics, Opuscula Archaeologica 3, 194–265.

ALL

, E.H.

1914

Excavations in East Crete, Vrokastro, University of
Pennsylvania Museum Anthropological Publications
III/3, Philadelphia.

OOD

, S., H

UXLEY

, G. and S

ANDARS

, N.

1958–59 A Minoan Cemetery on Upper Gypsades, BSA 53–54,

194–262.

ACOVOU

, M.

1988

The Pictorial Pottery of Eleventh Century B.C. Cyprus,
SIMA 79, Göteborg.

1994

The Topography of 11

Century Cyprus, 149–167 in: V.

ARAGEORGHIS

(ed.) 1994.

ANTA

, A.

1980

The Late Minoan III Period in Crete. A Survey of Sites,
Pottery and their Distribution, SIMA 58, Göteborg.

ARAGEORGHIS

, V.

1965

Cypriote Private Collections, Corpus Vasorum Antiquo-
rum, Cyprus 2, Nicosia.

1967

An Early XI

century B.C. Tomb from Palaepaphos,

RDAC 1–25.

1973

Contribution to the Early History of Soloi in Cyprus,
AAA 6, 145–49.

ARAGEORGHIS

, V. (ed.)

1994

Cyprus in the 11

Century B.C. Proceeding of the

International Symposium, Nicosia.

LING

, B.

1989

Mycenaean IIIC:1b and related pottery in Cyprus, SIMA
87, Göteborg.

RAIKER

, W. and K

ÜBLER

, K.

1939

Kerameikos I. Ergebnisse der Grabung I. Die Nekropolen
des 12. bis 10. Jh., Berlin.

EMOS

, I. S.

1994

Bird Revisited, 229–237, in: V. K

ARAGEORGHIS

(ed.)

1994.

IVERANI

, M., Storia di Ugarit, Studi Semitici 6 (1962) 81–93.

AZAR

, A.

1994

The 11

Century B.C. in the land of Israel, 39–59, in:

V. K

ARAGEORGHIS

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AIER

, F.G.

1969

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OUNTJOY

, P.

1986

Mycenaean Decorated Pottery. A Guide to Identification,
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OWICKI

, K.

2000

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IERIDOU

, A.

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OPHAM

, M.

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ACKETT

, L.H., P

OPHAM

, M.R. and W

ARREN

, P.M.,

1965

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CHÄFER

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, M.

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