Topics in Medicine and Surgery

Monitoring During Avian and Exotic
Pet Anesthesia

Javier G. Nevarez, DVM

Abstract

Monitoring the depth of anesthesia is one of the most challenging tasks during
anesthesia of exotic pets. Although there are many tools for monitoring mammalian
species, these are sometimes not as reliable in the exotic animal. In addition, there
is a lack of normal values or references for many of these tools. This article will
concentrate on the essentials of monitoring exotic animals during anesthesia with
emphasis on practical applications for clinical practice. Thermoregulation and
monitoring of reflexes and cardiovascular and respiratory parameters are dis-
cussed. A discussion of the equipment available for monitoring is presented.
Copyright 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Key words: anesthesia; monitoring; thermoregulation; cardiovascular; respiration

onitoring the depth of anesthesia is one of
the most challenging tasks during an anes-
thetic procedure of an exotic pet. Al-

though there are many tools for monitoring mam-
malian species, these are not as reliable in the exotic
animal. In addition, there is a lack of normal values
or references for many of these tools. Nonetheless,
there is room for the utilization of anesthesia-moni-
toring equipment in exotic animal medicine and
surgery. The continuing improvement of technology
may also lead to the development of new tools that
are more reliably used in exotic animals. This article
will concentrate on the essentials of monitoring ex-
otic animals during anesthesia and will discuss some
of the currently available equipment and its applica-
tion. An emphasis will be placed on clinical practice,
with an understanding of the equipment limitations
that occur in this type of practice. More advanced
monitoring modalities will also be discussed.

The first thing to remember is that no electronic

equipment should be a substitute for the knowledge
and experience of the person performing and/or
monitoring an animal during anesthesia. Basic pa-
rameters such as respiration, heart rate, and reflexes
can still be monitored without the aid of elaborate

electronic equipment. If the equipment fails, the
anesthetist must be able to rely on these basic mea-
surements for monitoring. The selection of monitor-
ing equipment will depend on availability and knowl-
edge of the equipment’s use and its effectiveness in
exotic species. Time to set up or apply the monitor-
ing equipment should also be taken into consider-
ation. Care must be taken not to spend too much
time attempting to obtain a reading from a monitor-
ing instrument while the animal is under anesthesia.
This may prove counterproductive in some in-
stances. Some equipment will require modifications
for use in exotic animals, whereas others will rely on
obtaining the smallest probes available, as is the case
with pulse oximetry. When reading about the equip-
ment and the information it provides, keep in mind

From the LSU School of Veterinary Medicine, Skip Bertman

Drive, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 USA.

Address correspondence to: Javier G. Nevarez, DVM, LSU

School of Veterinary Medicine, Skip Bertman Drive, Baton Rouge,
LA 70803. E-mail: jnevarez@vetmed.lsu.edu

Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol 14, No 4 (October), 2005: pp 277–283

277

that many times we are more interested in tracking
patterns during the anesthesia than in the actual
numbers or readings it may provide. This is particu-
larly true in exotic animal anesthesia and monitor-
ing, because the reference values for many of the
parameters have not been established.

The health of the animal should be assessed be-

fore an anesthetic procedure. This will help with
selecting an anesthetic drug, as well as, any specific
monitoring techniques that may be required. At this
point, you can also plan for additional supportive
therapy such as fluid or blood products. Monitoring
will help determine depth of anesthesia as well as
level of immobilization and analgesia. While moni-
toring, you may also be able to observe any expected
and unexpected physiologic changes associated with
the anesthetic drugs and/or the procedure. These
changes may be observed in the temperature, heart
rate, respiration, or blood pressure. It is then the
responsibility of the anesthetist to decide which
changes warrant intervention.

Intervention may come in the form of supplemen-

tal therapy such as fluid administration or changes in
the dose of inhaled anesthetic or ventilation param-
eters. In exotic animal medicine, there is a high
degree of variability in the management of anes-
thetic cases within and between species. This is due,
in part, to wide variation in the physiologic response
to the anesthesia. This variation may be even more
profound in reptiles. Anesthesia of exotic animals
presents additional challenges that require the anes-
thetist to be even more vigilant while monitoring an
animal under anesthesia.

Reflexes

The most basic form of monitoring an anesthetized
animal is by a continued assessment of various re-
flexes. In small mammals, one can use the same
reflexes that are monitored in larger domestic spe-
cies, such as dogs and cats. These include jaw tone,
palpebral and corneal reflex, myosis and mydriasis,
and response to deep pain. In birds and reptiles,
some of the same reflexes can be used, whereas
others are less accurate. Changes in the righting
reflex are one of the first parameters that are as-
sessed when determining whether an animal is be-
coming anesthetized. Palpebral reflexes are usually
not very accurate in birds and reptiles; instead, the
corneal reflex gives a more adequate idea of anes-
thetic depth. A cotton swab with lubricant can be
used to assess the corneal reflex. Tongue withdrawal
is also very useful in reptiles, especially in lizards and
snakes. A positive tongue withdrawal is usually ob-

served in a light plane of anesthesia, or as the animal
is recovering from anesthesia. Toe pinch is used to
assess response to deep pain in birds and reptiles.
Padded hemostats should be used to avoid trauma-
tizing the skin. Despite the current controversy
about interpreting pain perception in birds and rep-
tiles, a positive withdrawal after toe pinch may be
interpreted as a perception of pain. These reflexes,
together with heart rate and respiration, can be used
to monitor the induction, maintenance, and recov-
ery of anesthesia in exotic animals.

Thermoregulation

Hypothermia is likely one of the most frequently
encountered complications during anesthesia of an
exotic animal. Heat loss occurs by convection, radi-
ation, conduction, and evaporation.

Convective

losses occur as a result of air exchange at the body
surface. As warm air is exchanged with colder air,
heat loss occurs. This is important in rooms that are
maintained at cooler temperatures and have a rapid
air exchange. Convection losses are likely one of the
most significant sources of heat loss in the anesthe-
tized animal. Radiation heat loss occurs as a result of
the difference in temperature between the animal
and the surrounding surfaces and environment.
Conduction heat losses occur from contact with cold
surfaces such as tables. Most people are aware of
conductive heat loss, but ignore the others. Evapo-
rative losses primarily occur at the level of the lungs
and skin, although it can occur during procedures
that invade the abdominal/coelomic cavity. All of
these must be considered when anesthetizing an
animal, especially an exotic animal.

A high metabolism and increased body-surface-

area-to-size ratio make small mammals very suscepti-
ble to hypothermia during anesthesia. This is espe-
cially true for mice and rats. Both of these species are
known for being difficult to thermoregulate during
anesthesia, especially when the abdominal viscera
are exposed. Reptiles and birds are also prone to
extreme hypothermia during anesthesia. These ani-
mals must be provided with thermoregulatory sup-
port during and immediately following anesthesia.
Failure to maintain proper body temperature in
these animals can lead to slow recoveries and even
death. There are a number of tools and techniques
used to assist with the maintenance of a normal body
temperature in an animal under anesthesia. Individ-
ually, each method is imperfect, so a combination of
these methods is recommended. Prevention of heat
loss should be directed at the 4 modes of heat loss:
convection, radiation, conduction, and evaporation.

278

Nevarez

Forced-air Warmers

Forced-air warmers have gained popularity in re-
cent years in both human and veterinary medi-
cine. These heaters consist of a main unit that
blows warm air into a blanket (

Fig 1

). There are

various brands and assortments of blankets avail-
able. Forced-air warmers largely prevent convec-
tion losses but may also prevent conductive losses
if an appropriate blanket is used. Forced-air warm-
ers heat instantly without the waiting period that
may occur with heating pads. The heat output can
also be adjusted, and their use is not associated
with thermal injuries. They can be fitted to sur-
round the animal, and once a drape or towel is
placed over the blanket, create a warm environ-
ment that is very effective at maintaining normal
body temperature. The primary disadvantage asso-
ciated with this type of warming system is the
limited choice of blanket designs. The blankets are
designed for use in human pediatric anesthesia,
and some of the designs are difficult to use in the
veterinary setting. This type of warming system is
likely more expensive than others, but it is indeed
superior to other methods of providing supple-
mentary heat.

Heating Pads

Heating pads are usually placed between the animal
and the surgical table. Their main function is to
prevent heat loss by conduction. Recirculating water
heating pads are a good choice because they provide
even heat distribution and minimal risk of thermal
burns. The major disadvantage associated with recir-
culating water heating pads is that they are easily
punctured. Alternatively, an electric heating pad can
be used. These have the major disadvantage of caus-
ing thermal burns, so they must be used at a low
setting, and a barrier, such as a towel, placed be-
tween the pad and the animal. Animals should also
be given enough space to move off of the heating
pad in the event of excessive heat supplementation.
Electrical heating pads do present a fire hazard and
should not be left unattended for extended periods
of time. Heating pads will help maintain the animal’s
body temperature and decrease loss from direct con-
tact with a cold surface.

Other Heat Sources

In addition to heating pads and forced-air warmers,
there are other methods for providing supplemen-
tary heat to an anesthetized exotic animal. Heat
lamps equipped with incandescent light bulbs or
heat bulbs are available at hardware stores and can
be used as a direct, focused source of heat to prevent
radiation heat losses. There are some bulbs sold
specifically for this purpose known as basking lights.
These can be purchased at pet stores and other
retailers catering to exotic animal owners. They are
available in a spot or flood format. Spotlights con-
centrate the light into a smaller area, whereas flood-
lights have a wider area of coverage. A major disad-
vantage associated with these heat sources is that
they can generate a significant amount of heat,
which can prove uncomfortable for the individuals
performing a procedure. In addition, these heat
sources should never be directed toward the head of
a patient because they can dry the surface of the
cornea. There are also ceramic heat emitters, which
provide infrared heat without light output.

Heating stockings filled with dried beans or rice is

an inexpensive method of providing direct-contact
heat for a patient. A microwave oven can be used to
heat the stockings. Unfortunately, the stockings may
not heat evenly, which can lead to hot spots. The
temperature of the stocking should be determined
prior to being used for a patient. The stockings may
need to be reheated regularly as the heat can dissi-
pate quickly. Fluid bags can be used for the same
purpose. Water baths can be made by filling a plastic
container with warm water and then placing the

Figure 1.

A forced-air warmer unit with adjustable temperature

settings.

Monitoring during Anesthesia

279

container inside a trash bag. This creates a warm
water bed for the animal. Monitor the water temper-
ature to ensure that it doesn’t cause a thermal burn.
A towel can be placed between the animal and the
plastic bag. The top of the container can also be
covered with towels to prevent further heat loss.

Monitoring Temperature

Thermometers are essential for monitoring body
temperature during anesthesia. Correct placement
of the thermometer is critical to accurately determin-
ing temperature. Flexible temperature probes are an
essential component of achieving this goal. Flexible
probes can be inserted in the esophagus up to the
point of the heart. This location is thought to pro-
vide the most accurate reading of core body temper-
atures for exotic animals. Flexible temperature
probes can be found as accessories on some pulse
oximeters as well as electrocardiograms (ECG). Al-
ternatively, there are digital thermometers equipped
with flexible probes. Care should be taken when
using these probes because they are delicate and
malfunction when not handled properly. In addi-
tion, they can be expensive. Anal or cloacal temper-
atures are not relied on as accurate reflections of the
core body temperature.

Monitoring Cardiovascular Function

Monitoring cardiovascular function is an essential
component of the monitoring response to anesthe-
sia. Cardiovascular monitoring includes gathering
information about the heart rate and rhythm as well
as the blood pressure. Other tools and parameters
such as pulse oximetry and blood gases are closely
linked to the cardiovascular physiology. Unfortu-
nately, this is an area that presents some difficulties
in exotic animal anesthesia. Noninvasive determina-
tion blood pressure requires the use of a blood
pressure cuff, and one frequently finds that an ap-
propriately sized cuff for a particular animal is not
available. In addition, there is often a lack of pub-
lished data concerning the reference values for the
cardiovascular parameters that are being monitored.
However, the continued use of these tools will stim-
ulate research and expand our understanding of
their clinical application in exotic species.

The most basic method for monitoring the car-

diovascular system is to measure the heart rate. This
can be accomplished with a stethoscope placed
against the thoracic cavity or an esophageal stetho-
scope. In chelonians, the placement of a stethoscope

on the body surface will not provide an easily de-
tected heart sound. In these species, an esophageal
stethoscope or Doppler flow probe is required to
monitor the heart rate. In mammals, the femoral
pulse can be used to measure the heart rate. In most
birds and reptiles, this technique is not useful. In
some birds, the heart rate may be palpated over the
keel bone. This should be used as a temporary
means of obtaining the heart rate, because contin-
ued pressure over the keel bone may impede respi-
ration. Although heart rate is frequently obtained
without specialized equipment, determinations of
blood pressure and cardiac rhythm do require more
sophisticated monitoring devices.

Doppler

A Doppler unit is one of the most reliable methods
of determining heart rate. With the aid of an inflat-
able cuff, it can also be used to obtain noninvasive
blood pressure measurements. Although the units
are expensive, they are the least expensive of the
cardiac monitors. The Doppler probes are fragile,
but they can last when handled properly. Doppler
units require little maintenance other than routine
charging (

Fig 2

). Correct placement of the probe is

species dependent. Probes can be placed against the
thoracic cavity directly over the heart or against a
major blood vessel. Conduction gel must be used to
obtain a good signal. Once the signal is established,
the probe must be secured to avoid displacement
during the procedure. In small mammals, it can be
placed on the thoracic cavity or in the region of the
lateral saphenous or cephalic veins. In reptiles, the
probe can be placed on the thoracic cavity. Axillary
placement is ideal when using a Doppler in lizards.

Figure 2.

Doppler unit used to monitor heart rate and systolic blood

pressure. The concave side of the probe is placed against the
animal.

280

Nevarez

In tortoises, the probe is usually placed in the tho-
racic inlet. In birds, the probe can be placed on the
thoracic inlet or in the area of the basilic/ulnar vein
or the medial tarsometatarsal vein. The magnitude
of pressure placed on the probe may influence in-
fluence the signal reading. Inability to establish a
good signal is often related to either an insufficient
quantity of conduction gel or excessive or inade-
quate pressure on the probe during placement. The
author places gauze, cotton balls, or tongue depres-
sors over the probe once the signal is located. A layer
of tape or bandaging material can then be used to
secure the probe in place. At that time, it is also
helpful to tape the cord of the probe in place to
prevent turning of the probe. In birds, folding the
wing and taping it in place over the ulnar vein will
aid in keeping the probe in place.

Electrocardiography

Electrocardiograms (ECGs) have been used for a
long time in human and veterinary medicine. In
addition to being a diagnostic tool, the ECG is also
an important tool for monitoring the anesthetized
animal. It provides a heart rate as well as information
about cardiac rhythm. Heart rates can be obtained
from the rhythm strip and are the most accurate
measure of heart rate next to direct auscultation or
the rate obtained with a Doppler. In small mammals,
the ECG leads can be placed in a pattern similar to
that used with other mammals. Alligator clips may
cause skin damage or irritation in species with thin
skin, like the rabbit. Alternatively, a patch lead or a
needle placed through the skin can be used to con-
nect the leads. In birds and reptiles, it is most desir-
able to insert the needle through the skin at the
point of placement and attach the alligator clips to
the needle. There are numerous published reports
of the normal ECG of common avian pet species.

3-7

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure can be determined directly or indi-
rectly. Direct blood pressure monitoring requires
the placement of an arterial catheter, which is then
connected to a pressure transducer that displays the
pressure wave and provides values for systolic, dia-
stolic, and mean blood pressure. This technique is
more difficult in small exotic animals, and the rela-
tively expensive equipment may not be readily avail-
able in routine clinical practice. Alternatively, indi-
rect blood pressure measurement can be performed
with a Doppler or an oscillometric noninvasive blood
pressure monitor.

Compared with direct arterial pressures, the

Doppler method is thought to provide a more accu-

rate reflection of blood pressure than the oscillomet-
ric method.

The Doppler technique involves the use

of a pressure cuff with a sphygmomanometer placed
on an extremity. The cuff width should be 30% to
50% of the limb circumference around which the
cuff is placed.

The Doppler probe is placed distal to

the cuff. The cuff is inflated until the Doppler signal
is no longer audible, reflecting a reduction in arte-
rial blood flow. The cuff is then allowed to deflate
slowly, while the manometer can be observed. The
systolic blood pressure is recorded as the pressure
indicated on the sphygmomanometer that coincides
with the return of the first audible signal of the
Doppler.

Accuracy can be increased if multiple

measurements are averaged. The size and placement
of the cuff, instrumentation, and experience with
use of the Doppler can all influence the results.
Direct and indirect blood pressure monitoring have
been compared in Pekin ducks.

Reference values for blood pressure have not

been established for most exotic species. Because of
this, veterinary clinicians are left with having to ex-
trapolate values from species for which reference
blood pressures have been determined. Systolic
blood pressures above 90 mm Hg are ideal in mam-
mals. The interpretation of blood pressure in exotic
species requires further investigation. In the absence
of established values, information obtained with a
Doppler can be used to monitor trends in blood
pressure. In most cases, a drop in blood pressure
during the procedure may be more significant than
the absolute number itself.

Monitoring Respiratory Function

In many cases, the ventilation of an anesthetized
animal is under the control of the anesthetist via a
mechanical ventilator. Nonetheless, a ventilator may
not always be available or indicated. In such cases,
monitoring spontaneous ventilation provides rela-
tively sensitive information about the depth of anes-
thesia. Apnea is frequently the first indication that
intervention needs to occur. Apnea is often the re-
sult of excessive anesthetic depth or may be the
result of a more complicated physiologic response
that can lead to death.

Respiratory Rate Monitors

There are respiratory monitors that produce an au-
dible signal during exhalation (

Fig 3

). Absence of

that signal may indicate apnea in the anesthetized
animal. These monitors are useful in animals that
are allowed to ventilate spontaneously during an

Monitoring during Anesthesia

281

anesthetic procedure. There are different sensors
available depending on the size of the animal, and
choosing an appropriately sized sensor is critical for
the proper functioning of this monitor. These mon-
itors are very useful in exotic animals, especially
when the animal is covered with drapes, and thoracic
excursions are not clearly visible. One should keep
in mind, however, that some of these monitors only
provide information about the frequency of ventila-
tion, not the quality of ventilation.

Pulse Oximetry

Pulse oximeters are used to detect the percentage of
arterial hemoglobin that is saturated with oxygen
(SpO

). Pulse oximeter probes emit 2 wavelengths of

infrared light that are transmitted through the tissue
and blood. Absorbance of this light is detected by
the probe. Absorbance varies with the amount of
oxygenated and reduced hemoglobin, and the
oximeter provides a reading that indicates the per-
centage of hemoglobin that is oxygenated. Most
pulse oximeters provide an indication of heart rate
that is only accurate in the presence of a strong pulse
signal. Pulse oximetry is used to monitor changes in
saturation of hemoglobin that may indicate develop-
ing hypoxemia. Such information can signal the
need for changes in ventilation parameters during
anesthesia. Pulse oximeters can provide accurate
readings in small mammals, reptiles, and birds, but
their use is often more problematic than in dogs and
cats. More reliable signal strength can be achieved
when the oximeter probe is placed in an area with
adequate blood perfusion. A variety of probes are
available. The anal reflectance probe is most useful
for reptiles and birds. Anal reflectance probes can be

placed in the cloaca or esophagus.

A cotton ball or

gauze can be used to maintain the position of the
probe. Clip-on probes can be placed on extremities
such as the tongue, lip, ear, tail, or digit. These types
of probes are most useful in mammals. Tissue per-
fusion, thickness, and pigmentation can all influ-
ence the pulse oximeter readings. The utility of
pulse oximetry in exotic animals is somewhat con-
troversial. Much of the controversy surrounds the
difficulty in obtaining accurate readings with this
monitor. Experience and experimentation with
probe type and site of placement of the probe for
optimum signal strength will increase the utility of
this monitoring modality. As a general rule, arterial
oxygen saturation readings greater than 95% indi-
cate adequate hemoglobin saturation. Values be-
tween 90% and 95% indicate mild hypoxemia. Val-
ues below 90% are indicative of severe hypoxemia
and require aggressive intervention to reverse the
hypoxemia.

Capnography/Capnometry

Capnography is a useful tool for monitoring the
ventilation of an anesthetized animal. It can also
provide some information that can be used in an
assessment of the respiratory contribution to acid-
base status. Capnographs monitor the end-tidal CO

Capnographs are available as mainstream or side
stream monitors, depending on whether the probe is
located in the breathing circuit (mainstream) or is
remote. Side stream monitors automatically aspirate
breathing circuit gas that is then analyzed for CO

concentration. The analyzing probe of mainstream
capnographs is located between the endotracheal
tube and breathing circuit.

A positive correlation between the end-tidal par-

tial pressure of CO

and partial pressure of arterial

(Paco

) in African grey parrots during isoflu-

rane anesthesia with intermittent positive pressure
ventilation has been reported.

Such a relationship

suggests that capnography is a useful tool in assess-
ing ventilation in anesthetized birds. Capnography
can also be used during the anesthesia of other
exotic animals. Although reference end-tidal CO

values have not been established for all exotic animal
species, an assessment of trends during monitoring
can be useful. The type of capnograph, ventilation
frequency, gas mixture, and foreign material in the
sensors (saliva, condensation) may affect the reliabil-
ity of the reading. Capnographs may not be readily
available in general practice; however, the develop-
ment of capnographs specifically for use in veteri-
nary anesthesia is making this monitoring modality
more accessible.

Figure 3.

Example of a respiratory monitor that produces an audible

signal to monitor breathing during anesthesia. Different sized probes
are available.

282

Nevarez

Blood Gas Analysis

Analysis of blood gases is an integral, if perhaps
ideal, component of anesthetic monitoring in large
and small animals. However, in general practice it is
seldom used in any species. In smaller exotic ani-
mals, obtaining a sample may be difficult, if not
impossible. Sample volume is also a concern in small
exotic animals. Blood gas analysis is more frequently
used as a tool in the research setting.

10,11

Interpret-

ing blood gases requires an understanding of both
respiratory and acid-base physiology, and the inter-
ventions needed to effect changes in monitored pa-
rameters. Both metabolic and respiratory distur-
bances may be diagnosed with the aid of blood gas
analysis. Unfortunately, there are few reference
blood gas values for exotic animals. When interpret-
ing blood gases, one must consider that certain
species, such as reptiles, may be able to tolerate
physiologic conditions that would be detrimental in
mammals. Despite the limitations of blood gas mea-
surements in exotic animals, they should be consid-
ered as part of the anesthetic monitoring when the
size of the animal, available equipment, and exper-
tise of the personnel allow it.

Summary

Successful outcomes during anesthesia of exotic an-
imals require aggressive monitoring of the depth of
anesthesia, temperature, and cardiovascular and pul-
monary function. Current monitoring modalities
available for use in general veterinary practice pro-
vide the practitioner with the ability to assess blood
pressure, heart rate and rhythm, temperature, he-
moglobin saturation with oxygen, the concentration
of carbon dioxide in expired gases, and respiratory
rate. Although many of these monitors are designed
for use in mammals, their creative and persistent use

during exotic animal anesthesia will serve to improve
the quality of anesthesia care.

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Monitoring during Anesthesia

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Document Outline

Monitoring During Avian and Exotic Pet Anesthesia

Nevarez 2005 Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine

Document Outline