L1 - learner's first language or mother tongue

L2 - an additional language an individual is learning - it is also possible to talk about L3, L4 etc.

Target language (TL) - the language an individual learns or is formally taught in school

Acquisition - a spontaneous, subconscious process of getting to know an L2, where learner's attention is focused on meaning rather than form (Krashen 1981)

Learning - the development of conscious knowledge of an L2 through formal study (rule provision and error correction) (Krashen 1981)

Bilingualism - the use of two languages by an individual or speech community

Multilingualism - the use of three of more languages by an individual or within a speech community

Competence - a language user's underlying knowledge of language which is drawn upon in actual performance

Learning/instructional context - the situation in which the second language is learned or taught.

Formal instruction - it involves some attempt to focus learner's attention on specific properties of the L2 so that they will learn them.

Natural vs. educational contexts

Natural contexts - learners have contact with other speakers of L2 in a variety of situations (e.g. in the workplace, at home, through the media, etc.)

Educational contexts - learners have access to the TL in the classroom

In many cases language learning will involve both types of setting. Misconceptions about the nature of learning in natural and educational settings (informal vs. formal learning, social significance vs. subject matter, etc.). Misconceptions about the type of setting and the level of target language proficiency.

Types of natural contexts

Majority language contexts

• Situation in which learning takes place in countries when TL is used as a mother tongue (e.g. learning English in the US or GB)

• Learners are usually migrant workers, immigrants or children of such groups

• There is much variation in the level of L2 proficiency

• The importance of a variety of social factors (contact with native speakers, length of residence, etc.)

• Additive bilingualism (L2 Is learnt while L1 is kept) vs. subtractive bilingualism (learning of L@ causes loss of L1)

Official language contexts:

• It is found in decolonized countries of Africa and Asia, where the L2 functions as an official language

• Less resistance to the L2 and variable levels of proficiency

• The emergence of new varieties of the TL

International contexts

• A second language serves as a means of communication between speakers of different languages in wide range of contexts: business, academic, scientific, travel, etc.

• The concept of the `lingua franca'

• Restricted and fully developed international varieties

• Accuracy and the knowledge of cultural conventions

Educational contexts

Second language contexts vs. foreign language contexts

• In second language contexts learners have regular access to the TL outside the classroom (e.g. learning French in France)

• In foreign language contexts learners do not have regular access to the TL outside the classroom (e.g. learning English in Poland)

• Effective instruction in second language contexts

• Effective instructions in foreign language contexts

• The need to view educational contexts as a continuum

• Teaching English as an international language (EFL)

Institutional contexts

• Elementary and secondary schools

• Submersion - language learners are taught content subjects together with native speakers; they can be accompanied with pull-out programs

• Mainstreaming - students first receive instruction in the TL before being placed in content classes with native speakers

• Immersion - the TL is taught through content subject (math, history, etc.) in monolingual classrooms - an example of content and language integrated learning (CLIL)

• Sheltered English - a version of immersion where learners come from different L1 backgrounds and the teacher is trained in both subject-matter and ESL methodology

• Segregation - learners are educated separately from NSs

• Bilingual or mother language maintenance

(education involves a combination of L1 and L2)

• Transitional bilingual programs - content taught in L1 and L2 component until learners can be transferred into regular classes and educated together with native speakers

• Maintenance bilingual classes - a portion of the curriculum continues to be taught in the L1

• Enrichment bilingual programs - learners select some content subjects that are taught in the TL but the bulk of their education is in their L1

• The rationale for bilingual education - the development of basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)

• Institutions of higher education

• Pre-academic programs - programs for students who plan to enter a regular course of study at the college level

• EAP - English for Academic Purposes - a course in which students are taught to deal with academically related language and subject matter

• ESP - English for Specific Purposes - programs devoted to specific fields of study

• Literacy programs - are designed for students whose native language reading and writing skills are poor

• The specify of teaching foreign languages in the monolingual classroom, where the teacher and learners share the L1

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