gramatyka wykład sem III


CONDITIONALS

Conditionals

`0' conditional

What is always true

   present + present

 

   If you heat ice, it melts.

   If I work late, I get tired.

 

   If the sauce is boiling, it means the food is ready. (if = when)

`0' conditional in the past

What was always true

   past + past

 

   We went for a walk if we had a day off.

   If it was raining, we went to the cinema.

 

1 conditional

Real, possible and probable (future)

   present + future (will)

 

    If you keep working like this, you will easily pass.

    He will break his neck if he doesn't slow down.

    When she comes, I'll tell her the truth.

    If she is late again, they'll get furious.

 

2 conditional

Hypothetical situations, theoretically possible, improbable (present)

 

    past + would

 

    If I knew the answer, I would tell you.

    If he had more money, he would buy a bigger flat.

    If I were you, I wouldn't keep it secret.

    If they didn't go abroad every year, they would join us in the countryside.

 

3 conditional

Hypothetical past situations, impossible (past)

 

   past perfect + would have

 

   If I had known you were coming, I would have cooked something special.

   If they hadn't sold their car, they would have picked you from the station.

 

Modal verbs in conditionals

Possible situations in the present

    If you get wet, you should change your clothes.

    If you come early, we can visit her together.

Hypothetical situations

    If they had money, they could help us.

    If he lived nearby, he should visit us more often.

Hypothetical past situations

    If you hadn't reminded me, I might have forgotten.

    If he had informed us earlier, I shouldn't have sent the notice.

 

If only

Adds emphasis to hypothetical situations;

Past events - adds a sense of regret

(second part of the sentence often left out)

 

   If only I had more time!

   If only they were here!

   If only he hadn't drunk so much, this wouldn't have happened!

 

Unless

Unless = if + not

(unless is negative)

 

(not all negative if sentences can be transformed into unless sentences)

 

     If they weren't told the truth, they wouldn't believe us any more.

     Unless they were told the truth, they wouldn't believe …

    

     If Mr Smith doesn't come back, he'll phone you.

     (cannot be changed)

if / when

 

if > sth might happen

when > sth will happen

 

   I'll tell him if he comes.

   I'll tell him when he comes.

 

Other alternatives to if

provided / providing

     I'll do it providing / provided (that) I have enough time.

so / as long as

     So / as long as you promise not to lose it, you can take it.

on condition that

     They agreed to help us on condition that they were paid extra.

suppose / supposing

     Suppose / supposing you were offered a job abroad, would you take it?

otherwise

     We'd better leave now. Otherwise, we'll miss the plane.

but for

     But for your directions, I would have got lost.

or (else)

     Don't do that again or else I'll punish you.

even if

     I wouldn't go there even if they paid me.

in case of / in the event of

     In case of /in the event of a fire, press this button.

 

Going to in conditionals

going to can replace will

   If you fall, you are going to hurt yourself.

 

going to can mean `intend to' after if

   If you are going to make trouble, we will call the police.

 

Present perfect in conditionals

used to stress the completion after if

   If you have finished, then we'll go.

 

possible in both parts of the sentence

   If I've told you once, I've told you a hundred times!

 

Doubt and uncertainty

additional not in formal expressions involving doubt

   I wouldn't be surprised if it didn't rain.

   (I think it will rain.)

   This emphasises the uncertainty and does not add a negative meaning; the intonation falls on rain, there's no stress on didn't.

Should / were to / happen to

Should after if makes the possibility of an event seem unlikely.

    If you should see her, ask her to call me.

    (implication I don't expect you to see her)

Were to makes an event seem more hypothetical.

    If I were to ask you to marry me, what would you say?

Happen to emphasises chance possibilities (often used with should)

    If you happen to see him, ask him to contact me.

    If you should happen to be passing, drop in for a cup of tea.

 

Will after if ?

   to make a polite request

    If you will wait a minute, Mrs Polite will be able to talk to you.

  to express insistence

    If you will go on making so much noise, I'll ask you to leave.

   to express uncertainty (if means whether)

    I wonder if he'll call me tomorrow.

        

Omission of if

Sit down, and I'll make you some tea. (if you sit down …)

Should he come, I'll tell him the news. (if he comes …)

Were he more careful, he wouldn't get into trouble so often. (if he were more careful …)

Had she been asked, she would have helped you. (if she had been asked …)

Practice

1.    If the machine stops / will stop, you press / will press this button.

2.    I can't understand what he sees in her! If anyone treats / will treat / treated me like that, I am / will be /would be extremely angry!

3.    If you help me / helped me with this exercise, I will do / would do the same for you one day.

4.    According to the timetable, if the train leaves / left on time we will / would arrive at 5.30.

5. If it is / will be time tomorrow, we go / will go to the coast.

6. If we find / found a taxi, we will get /would get there before the party starts.(2 możliwości)

7. It's quite simple really. It you take / will take / took these tablets every day, then you lose / will lose / would lose weight.

8. I don't like this flat. I think I am / I will be / I'd be happier if I live / will live / would live / lived in a house in the country.

9. I don't know how to play baseball, but I am sure that if I will / do / did, I play / will play / would play a lot better than anyone in this team.

10. If I phone / will phone / phoned you tonight, are you / will you be / would you be in?

 

More practice

 

1.    Now we're lost! If you (write down) had written down Mary's directions, this (not happen) wouldn't have happened.

2.    Why don't we emigrate? If we (live) lived in Australia, at least the weather (be) would be better!

3.    I'm afraid that Smith is a hardened criminal. If we (not punish) don't punish him this time, he (only commit) will only commit more crimes.

4.    Thanks to Dr Jones, I'm still alive. If it (not be) hadn't been for her, I (be) would have been (would be) dead for certain!

5.    I'm sorry I can't lend you any money. You know that if I (have) had it, I (lend) would lend it to you.

6. Don't be afraid. If you (touch) touch the dog, it (not bite) won't bite you.

7. In those days, if you (have) had a job, you (be) were lucky.

8. It's always the same! If I (decide) decide to leave the office early, my boss (call) calls me after I've left!

9. What a terrible thing to happen! Just think, if we (not miss) hadn't missed the plane, we (kill) would have been killed in the crash.

10. Did you enjoy your meal? If you (finish) have finished eating, I (clear away) will clear away the plates.

11. Why didn't you phone? If I (know) had known you were coming, I (meet) would have met you at the airport.

12. It's a pity you missed the party. If you (come) had come you (meet) would have met my friends from Hungary.

 

More practice again …

1.      If you do have any time free, could you give me a ring?
SHOULD
Should you have…/ If you should

2.      We won't go away if the weather is bad.
UNLESS
Unless the weather is good…

3.      I didn't have the money so I didn't buy a new suit.
WOULD
If I had had… I would have bought…

4.      I regret not studying hard last term.
ONLY
If only I have studied…

5.      If you hurry up, you won't be late.
GOING
If you don't hurry up, you're going to be late.

6.      If they offered you the job, would you accept?
WERE
Were you offered the job…?

7. If you are in London by any chance, come and see me.

     HAPPEN If you happen to be in London…

8. Without you, I would have given up years ago.

     BEEN If it hadn't been for you…/ Hadn't it been for you…

9. If you insist on doing everything yourself, of course you feel tired!

     WILL …you will feel tired.

10. Please take a seat, and I'll inquire for you.

     WILL If you will take a seat…

11. I'll call the police if you don't leave me alone!

     UNLESS Unless you leave me alone…

12. If you see Peter, tell him he should be here at 8.00.

Should you see Peter…

Mixed conditionals

type 2 + type 1

   If they were working all night, they will be sleepy now.

   (They were working all night so they are sleepy now)

type 2 + type 3

If I were you, I wouldn't have gone there.

   (You are not me, so you went there)

 

If he studied more, he would have passed the exam.

   (He doesn't study a lot so ha failed)

type 3 + type 2

If she had taken the umbrella, she wouldn't be getting wet now.

   ( She didn't take it and now she is getting wet)

If she hadn't got wet in the rain, she wouldn't be ill now.

   (she got wet in the rain and now she is ill)

Practice

Make at least one conditional sentence for each situation.

1.    They will come to Gdynia so they will visit us.

2.    I don't know Japanese so I can't read it.

3.    She will finish this school and she will start work.

4.    She doesn't have a car so she goes to school by bus.

5.    They have a lot of money so they spend holidays abroad.

6.    They didn't finish school because they didn't learn.

7. One of the students broke his hand so he didn't write the test.

8. We don't visit you very often because you live so far away.

9. I have to work tomorrow evening, so I can't meet you.

10. I was able to buy the car because Jim lent me the money.

11. Give up smoking and be healthier.

12. He didn't look carefully, that's why he didn't see me.

13. That book is too expensive, I'm not going to buy it.

14. He doesn't speak very clearly - that's why people don't understand him.

15. The accident happened because the driver in front stopped so suddenly.

16. The accident happened because the driver in front stopped suddenly.

17. You didn't have any breakfast, that's why you are hungry now.

18. Stop drinking and live longer.

19. We don't go out very often because we can't afford it.

20. Mary wasn't injured in the crash because she was wearing a seat belt.

21. I wasn't hungry, so I didn't eat anything.

22. He is not an honest person so he didn't tell the truth.

23. They couldn't sleep all night so they are tired now.

24. You didn't tell me earlier so we are not going to the circus tomorrow.

 25. She didn't cancel the newspaper so the postman keeps delivering it.

26. The ship left Plymouth yesterday so it will be in Spain now.

27. They were painting the house all day so they are covered in paint now.

28. She didn't do her homework so she is in trouble with the teacher now.

29. They didn't water the plants and they are dry now.

30. She is so disorganised that she missed the deadline.

31. The children were playing in the garden so they are really dirty now.

32. He doesn't take his job seriously so he wasn't promoted.

33. The teacher told him off again as he missed another class today.

 

More practice

1.      Jeżeli napiszesz ten test dobrze, dostaniesz dobrą ocenę.

2.      Gdybyś napisał ten test dobrze, dostałbyś dobrą ocenę.

3.      Gdybyś wtedy napisał ten test dobrze, byłbyś dostał dborą ocenę.

4.      Ona zrobi ci kawę, jeżeli ją o to poprosisz.

5.      Ona zrobiłaby ci kawę, gdybyś ją o to poprosił.

6.      One byłaby zrobiła ci kawę gdybyś ją był o to poprosił.

7.      Powiem ci prawdę jeżeli do mnie przyjdziesz.

8.      Powiedziałabym ci prawdę gdybyś do mnie przyszedł.

9.      Byłabym ci powiedziała prawdę gdybyś wtedy do mnie przyszedł.

10. Jeżeli zadzwoni telefon, powiedz, że będę w domu o 10-tej.

11.Gdybym była młodsza, ulepiłabym bałwana.

12. Gdybym wiedziała o tym wcześniej, pomogłabym ci.

13. Gdyby była ładna pogoda, poszlibyśmy na spacer.

14. Gdyby on nie zapomniał o urodzinach babci, ona zostawiłaby mu wszystkie swoje pieniądze.

15. Pojechalibyśmy taksówką gdybyśmy mieli pieniądze.

16. Jeżeli dostałbym jakieś pieniądze, poszlibyśmy do teatru.

17. Gdybym była na twoim miejscu, zostałabym w domu.

18. Gdybym wiedziała, że jesteś w szpitalu, odwiedziłabym cię.

19. Jeżeli on nie zjadłby tak dużo, czułby się teraz o wiele lepiej.

20. Co byś zrobiła, gdybyś zobaczyła tu słonia?

Brief review on conditionals

Correct the errors in these sentences - one sentence contains no error.

            If I were born rich I hadn't needed to work. Had been born/ wouldn't need

            If you have been feeling unwell you should go to see the doctor. correct

            He says that if it weren't for the taxes he'll be much better off. Would be

            There wouldn't be so much poverty when less money is spent on arms. If…/ was spent

            If you shouldn't arrive in time they won't let you into the concert. Don't arrive

            If you would have brought it last week, the price didn't have go up. Had bought/ wouldn't have gone

            If you'd let me know if you arrived I'd meet you at the airport. If you let me know when you arrive I will meet you…

            I'll be surprised unless prices go up next year. I'll be surprised if prices don't go up…

 

What are the differences in meaning?

           When it rains our roof leaks.
 If it rains our roof will leak.
When it rained our roof would leak.
If it rains our roof leaks.
If it rained our roof
would leak.

           I'd go first class if I could afford to.
I go first class when I can afford it.
I'd have gone first class if I could have afforded it.
I'll go first class if I can afford to.
I'll go first class when I can afford it.

 

           He could get a rise if he asked his boss.
He might get a rise if he asked his boss.
He should get a rise if he asks his boss.
He would get a rise if he asked his boss.
He might get a rise if he asks his boss.
He will get a rise if he asks his boss.

           If you should see him, give him my love.
If you see him, give him my love.
If you happen t see him, give him my love.
When you see him, give him my love.

 

           You should save your money in case you want to go on holiday.
You won't be able to
go on holiday unless you save your money.

           If only I hadn't spent all my money and I had saved some!
If I hadn't spent all my money and had saved some …

 

Give conditional sentences for the following situations:

            She doesn't listen to anyone's advice, so she didn't do what the teacher suggested. If she listened to anyone's advice she would have done what the teacher suggested.

            He's so gullible that he believed everything you said. If he weren't so gullible he wouldn't have believed…

            The flight left on time, so they'll be in Dublin by now. If the flight left on time they'll be in Dublin by now.

            She stopped taking the medicine and she's ill again. If she hadn't stopped… she wouldn't be ill again.

            They used to lie to her and now she does not trust them. If they hadn't used to lie… she would trust…

            He didn't go to the mountains with us as he's afraid of heights. He would have gone to the mountains with us if he weren't afraid of heights.

            He forgot his grandma's birthday and now she doesn't give him any pocket money. If he hadn't forgotten… she would be giving him…

            He never comes on time so he was finally fired. If he came on time he, wouldn't have been…

            You made a lot of mistakes in your paper. You have to write it once again. If you hadn't made… you wouldn't have to write…

Wishes

Wish + Past tense

I wish we were on holiday. (= It's a pity we aren't.)

I wish they were here. (= It's a pity they aren't.)

I wish I had a motorbike. (= I don't have one now)

I wish you weren't leaving. (=You are leaving)

I wish I was going on holiday with you. (=I'm not)

         

   wish / regret about a present situation we want to be different

 

Wish + could + bare infinitive

I wish I could fly. (but I can't)

I wish I help you. (but I can't)

I wish I could do something about it. (but I can't)

  

   wish / regret in the present concerning lack of ability

   after I / we use could instead of would

 

Wish + Past Perfect

I wish you had listened to me. (but you didn't)

I wish you hadn't sold your flat. (but you did)

I wish they had told us the truth. (but they didn't)

 

   regret that something happened or didn't happen in the past

 

Wish + subject + would + bare inf

           For a polite imperative
I wish you would stop talking.

           To express our desire for a change in a situation or someone's behaviour, dissatisfaction, disappointment
or lack of hope
I wish he would give up smoking.
I wish he would stop lying.
I wish they would take it more seriously.
I wish you wouldn't throw litter on the floor.
I wish it would stop raining.

Fill in the sentences with an appropriate auxiliary verb

           I don't know Spanish but I wish I knew

           We moved house but I wish we hadn't

           They forgot to deliver the parcel and I wish they hadn't forgotten

           He can't ride a bike but he wishes he could

           She never comes on time but I wish she would/ did

           I'm not very strong but I wish I were

           They won't help me but I wish they did

           She hasn't got a dog but she wishes she had

           They don't eat out very often but they wish they did/ would

           He won't listen to your advice but I wish he did/ would

 

Paraphrase the sentences using `wish', add a conditional sentence.

           I should have taken my umbrella. Now I'm wet all over. I wish I had taken my umbrella. If I had taken my umbrella, I wouldn't be wet all over.

           I shouldn't have eaten so much cake. Now I feel ill. I wish I hadn't eaten so much cake. If I hadn't eaten so much cake, I wouldn't feel ill now.

           I didn't watch the news so I didn't know that there was a train strike. I wish I had watched the news. If I had watched the news, I would have known that there…

           I want to make spaghetti but there is no pasta left. I wish I could make spaghetti. If there was any pasta left, I would make spaghetti.

           He wants to play tennis but he broke his tennis racquet. He wishes he hadn't broken his tennis racquet. If he hadn't broken his tennis racquet, he could play tennis now.

           She wanted to travel abroad but she forgot her passport expired. She wishes she hadn't forgotten her passport expired. If she hadn't forgotten her passport expired, she would travel abroad.

           I want to go swimming but I have lost my goggles. I wish I hadn't lost my goggles. If I hadn't lost my goggles, I could go swimming now.

           She can't drive a car so she can't get round easily. She wishes she could drive a car. If she could drive a car she could get round easily.

 

Rewrite using a wish construction
(source: Martinet, part 2)

           It's a pity I haven't got a washing machine. I wish I had…

           I'm sorry I don't live near my work. I wish I lived…

           It's a pity our garden does not get any sun. I wish our garden got…

           I'm sorry I called him a liar. I wish I hadn't call…

           Is a pity I don't know Finnish. I wish I knew…

           It's a pity I didn't book a seat. I wish I had booked…

           It's a pity I don't have a car. I wish I had a car…

           I'm sorry I can't drive. I wish I could drive…

           I'd like Tom to drive more slowly (lack of hope) I wish Tom would drive…

           I'd like you to keep quiet (you're making so much noise I can't think) I wish you would keep…

           I'm sorry we accepted the invitation. I wish we hadn't accepted…

           It's a pity that theatre tickets cost so much. I wish theatre tickets didn't cost…

           It'a a pity that shops here close on Saturday afternoon. I wish that shops didn't close..

           It's a pity he didn't work harder during the term. I wish he had worked…

           I'm sorry you didn't see it. I wish you had seen…

           It's a pity you are leaving tonight. I wish you weren't leaving…

           It's a pity I haven't got a work permit. I wish I had got…

           I would like it to stop snowing. (I'm not very hopeful) I wish it would stop…

           I'd like you to wait for me. I wish you waited…

           I'm sorry I didn't bring a map. I wish I had brought…

           I'm sorry I left my last job. I wish I hadn't left…

           I'm sorry I didn't stay in my last job. I wish I had stayed…

           I'm sorry I ever came to this country. I wish I had never come…

I'd rather …

I'd rather +present bare inf

(present / future reference)

I'd rather go.

I'd rather not take a taxi.

 

I'd rather + perfect bare inf
(
past reference)

I'd rather not have taken the bus.

I'd rather sb

I'd rather sb + Past Simple

(present / future reference)

I'd rather you stayed at home.

I'd rather she didn't go there.

 

I'd rather + Past perfect

(past reference)

I'd rather you had come earlier.

 

Respond with I'd rather you…

            Can I go by bus?

            Can I go alone?

            Can we start tomorrow?

            Can I call New York on your mobile?

            Can we sleep in the garden tonight?

            Can we eat out today?

            Can we meet in the evening?

            Can we hitch-hike to Paris?

            Can I leave the cleaning for tomorrow?

            Can I have a tattoo on my arm?

            Can I go barefoot?

Conditionals & wishes - review

Correct mistakes in the sentences. One of them is correct.

         Unless you don't know the details, you can't reach a decision. Unless you know…

         If you shall pay attention, maybe you'll learn something. If you pay…

         Were I you, I would have helped them. correct

         I'd rather to write a project than sit an exam. rather write…

         I wish the weather would improved. weather improved…

         Take my business card in case you will want to contact me. You contact…

         But for your assistance we wouldn't had completed it. Wouldn't have

         If only she hadn't complained all the time! Didn't complain…

         He wishes he has more time to spend with his friends. He had…

         I wish that they will stop arguing. Stopped/ would stop

 

Give a new sentence using I wish… and If only…

         The weather is awful. (improve) I wish the weather improved.

         People leave the tap running all the time. (turn off) I wish people turned off the tap.

         Your brother is very angry. (calm down) I wish your brother calmed down.

         The postman hasn't arrived and I'm waiting for an important letter. (arrive)

         People hunt animals for sport. (stop)

         The people next door have their TV on very loud. (turn down)

         Your friend keeps complaining about everything all the time. (stop)

         It doesn't rain enough. (more)

         I can't wait for Christmas. (come)

         Too much rubbish is thrown away. (recycle) If only rubbish was recycled.

 

Finish each of the sentences in such a way that it means exactly the same as the given one.

          It's my opinion that you should take more exercise. If I were you I would take more exercises.

          Without his wife's constant support he would have never achieved his ambition. If he weren't supported…

          But for his presence of mind there might have been a serious accident. If it hadn't been for his presence/ If it weren't…

          Considering all the problems, it's a miracle we succeeded. If one considers all the problems, it's…

          Without proper lessons, you could pick up a lot of bad habits. If you don't take proper lessons, you could…

          It would be a waste of everyone's time to discuss the question any further. It would be… if we discussed…

          Given favourable weather, all the yachts should have reached the half-way stage by the weekend. Provided that the weather is favourable all the yachts…

          You won't get a loan without being able to offer some security. You won't get a loan unless you are able to offer some security.

          Follow the instructions carefully and you won't have any problems. As long as you follow the…

          For us to have given up at that stage would have been an admission of total defeat. If we had given up at that stage, we would have admitted a total defeat.

 

Rewrite the sentences using inversion

         If you should need to consult me again, you can contact me at this number. Should you need…

         The hospital can switch to an emergency generator if the need should arise. Should the need arise…

         If you should be late once again, you'll lose your job. Should you be late…

         If it were not for the fact that his father is on the board of directors, he would never have got the job. Weren't it for…

         If such a merger were ever to be proposed, it would undoubtedly be referred to the Monopolies Commission. Were such a merger ever to be…

         If it were not for the expense involved, I would go there by air. Weren't it for

         If it hadn't been for your laziness, you could have finished the work by now. Hadn't it been…

         If he had taken a little more time to think, he might have acted more sensibly. Had he taken…

Mixed conditionals (type 1 & 2)

        If she (sleep) slept all day, she (feel) will feel better now.

        If they (walk) walked 40 kilometres, they (be) will be exhausted.

        If the plane (take) took off on time, they (be) will be in Moscow now.

        If he (read) read book all day long, he (not/feel) won't feel like reading again.

        If they (work) worked hard all they, they (need) will need a rest when they come back.

Clauses

Time clauses

Introduced by

    after                     before

    as                         by the time

    as long as             while

    as soon as            until / till

    just as                  the moment (that)

    once                     whenever

    since                    every time

    when                    immediately

 

Time clauses

follow the rule of the sequence of tenses:

-        the verb of the main clause is in the present or future form, the verb of the time clause is in a present form,

-        the verb of the main clause is in the past form, the verb of the time clause is in the past form too

Will is never used in time clauses

Punctuation

When the time clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used.

 

No comma is used when the time clause follows the main clause.

Practice
Fill in
if or when and put the verb in the correct tense.

         Tom will phone you when he (wake up) wakes up.

         when do you think he (finish) will finish the project?

         If there (be) are any problems, I will phone you.

         when the exams (be) is over, we will have a party.

         If Ted (apply) applies for the job, I'm sure he'll get it.

         If we (arrive) arrive late at the theatre, there will be no tickets left.

         I have no idea if he (return) returns from his trip or not.

         when will you stop (you/stop) interfering in my life?

         Please let me know when you (hear) hear from them, will you?

         If we (have) have nothing else to discuss, we can all leave now.

 

Choose the appropriate time phrase. Put the verbs in the correct tense.

         I'll call you while / the moment I (get) get home.

         You can visit me whenever / till you (want) want to.

         We went for a walk after / until we (eat) had eaten breakfast.

         Once / Before he (read) read the manual, he knew how to operate the machine.

         I was doing the ironing during / while he (wash) was washing the car.

         They didn't get married until / by the time they (save) had saved/ saved enough money for their honeymoon.

         I'll write to you as soon as / immediately I (have) have the results.

         I got to the station till / just as the train (pull in) pulled in.

         We won't move to a new house since / before the children (leave) leave school.

         They had fixed the roof until / by the time John (come) came back.

 

Clauses of Reason

     Introduced by as, since, because, for, the reason for, the reason (why), on the grounds that, etc.
As he was late for work, he got a taxi.

     Because usually answers a why-question. `Why did you lie to him?' `Because I was afraid of being punished.'

     For always comes after a comma in written form or a pause in oral speech. I didn't tell him anything, for I don't trust him.

 

Other ways of expressing reason

Because of / Due to / On account of + noun/-ing form

She was late because of / due to / on account of heavy traffic.

 

Because of / Due to / On account of+ the fact that

Because of the fact that / Due to the fact that / On account of the fact that it had been snowing for four days, all roads were closed.

 

Rewrite the sentences using the words in brackets.

         She ate out because there was nothing to eat at home. (since) Since there was nothing to eat at home, …

         She hadn't slept all night, and therefore she was tired. (as) As she hadn't slept all night, she was tired.

         The singer cancelled his concert. She was depressed. (on account of) The singer… on account of her depression.

         The shop assistant was rude to customers, as a  result, she was fired. (because of)

         He passed his driving exam, so he is really pleased with himself. (now that)

         The reason why the President did not attend the international meeting was that he was feeling unwell. (for) The President… for (=because) he was feeling unwell.

Clauses of result

Clauses of result are used to express the result of something. They are introduced by:

-        that (after such / so …)

-        (and) as a result

-        (and) as a consequence

-        consequently

-        so, etc

 

     such a(n) + (adjective) + singular countable noun
It was such a nice dress that she bought it.

     such + (adjective) + uncountable / plural noun
It was such bad weather that we stayed indoors.

     such + a lot of + noun
There were such a lot of people on the bus that there were no seats left.

     so + adjective / adverb
He speaks so quickly that hardly anyone can understand him.

 

     so + much / many / little / few + noun
She won so much money in the lottery that she bought a mansion.

     so + adjective + a(n) + noun
It was so delicious a cake that she ate it.

     as a result / therefore / consequently / so + clause
He didn't have a visa and as a result he couldn't enter the country.

 

Fill in so / such / such a(n)

        I was so worried that I couldn't sleep.

        He is such a liar that nobody believes him.

        It was so boring a film that they left the cinema.

        It was such a delicious cake that it disappeared immediately.

        It was such good news that everybody cheered.

        They were so surprised that they couldn't say a word.

        They had such a good opportunity to win that it won't happen again.

        They had so much fun playing together that they want to meet again.

 

Fill in so / such / such a(n)

     Mandy was getting (1) so bored one afternoon that she decided to go shopping. She always took (2) such pleasure in buying things for herself that she would often spend lots of money in just one day. She set out feeling really excited. After two hours she had bought (3) so many things that she could hardly carry them. The shops were closing and there was (4) such a lot of traffic in the streets that she couldn't find a taxi. She started feeling frustrated. She was (5) so anxious to get back home that she decided to take the underground. She took (6) such long time to find her purse among her things that people waiting in the queue started muttering. When she finally found it, there was (7) so little money in it that she didn't have enough to buy a ticket. Mandy was (8) so embarrassed that she just wanted to disappear. She left the station and was in (9) such a desperate state that she didn't know what to do. `I've spent (10) so much money that I've made a fool of myself in front of complete strangers,' she thought.

 

Join the sentences using the words in brackets.

         It was a hard job. We were exhausted by the time we had finished. (such … that) It was such a hard job that we…

         He'd forgotten to bring the report with him. He had to go home and get it. (because) Because…, …

         The food was bad. We complained to the manager. (Since) Since…, …

         It was a long journey. They packed some food to take with them. (due to the fact)

         I hate sailing. I get seasick. (the reason)

         Their house is too small. They are going to look for a bigger one. (consequently)

         Sharon is busy this weekend. She can't come to the seaside with us. (Since)

         The exam was difficult. Many students failed. (such… that)

         They fell behind with the project. They had to work overtime. (as a result)

         Their flight was delayed. They spent the night in a hotel. (as)

 

Clauses of purpose

     to / in order to / so as to + inf
I'll leave home early to get to work on time. (informal)
She's studying so as to qualify as a lawyer. (formal)

     so that + can / will (present / future reference)

     so that + could / would (past reference)
She works hard so that she will have better career prospects.
He gave me directions so that I could find his house easily.

     with a view to / with the aim of + ing
He did a Master's degree with the aim of applying for a managerial post when he had finished.

    for + noun / -ing form
This is a knife for cutting cheese.

    in case + present (present / future reference)
I'll write it down in case I forget it.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.

    in case + past (past reference)
He took an umbrella in case it rained.

 

Negative purpose

     so as not / in order not to (inf)
She studied hard so as not / in order not to fail her exams.

     so that + can't / won't (present / future reference)
Tie up the dog so that it won't get out of the garden.

     so that + couldn't / wouldn't (past reference)
She locked the door so that burglars couldn't get in.

     for fear / lest +might / should
for fear of sth / doing sth
He didn't say where he was going for fear he might be followed.
He gave them all his money for fear of being shot.

     prevent + noun / pronoun + (from) + -ing form
She put on her raincoat to prevent herself (from) getting soaked.

     avoid + -ing form
He took a taxi t work to avoid being late.

 

Rephrase the sentences

        I brought her a present. I wanted to cheer her up.
I brought her a present so as to cheer her up.
I brought her a present in order to cheer her up.
I brought her a present to cheer her up.
I brought her a present so that I could cheer her up.
I brought her a present with the aim of cheering her up.

        She didn't answer the phone. She didn't want to have to talk to anyone.

She didn't answer the phone

…in order not to talk to anyone.

…so that she wouldn't talk to anyone.

…to avoid talking to anyone.

…with the aim of not talking to anyone.

…because she didn't want to have to talk to anyone.

        They bought a bigger house. They wanted to have more room.

They bought a bigger house

…because they wanted to have more room.

…in order to have more room.

…to have more room.

        He always kept a spare tyre in the boot. He might have a puncture.

        The hospital staff went on strike. They wanted to protest about working conditions.

        Pauline didn't go to the party. She didn't want to bump into Ian.

        We flew direct to Rome. We didn't want to get stuck in London.

        He has joined a gym. He wants to be healthy and fit for the summer.

 

Complete the sentences using the words in brackets

        I didn't tell her the news. I didn't want to upset her.
(avoid) I didn't tell her bad news to avoid upsetting her.

        Mary wrote out a shopping list. She didn't want to forget anything.
(that) Mary wrote out a shopping list so that she wouldn't forget anything.

        Paul trained hard every day. He wanted to be the best.
(as
) Paul trained hard every day (so) as he wanted the best.

        Lee gave up the job. She planned to continue her education.
(view) Lee gav
e up her job with the view to continue her education.

        She turned the oven down. She didn't want to burn the cakes.
(might) She turned the oven down for the fear she might burn the cakes.

        He was saving all his money. He intended to buy a house.
(aim) He was saving all his money with the aim of buying a house.

        Peter left the office early. He wanted to be at the cinema on time.
(in
) Peter left the office early in order to be at the cinema on time.

        This is a pencil sharpener. You use it to sharpen pencils.
(for) This is a pencil sharpener. It is us
ed for sharpening pencils.

         I'll bring a pack of cards. We might want to play later.
(cas
e) I'll bring a pack of cards in case we want to play later.

        We didn't want to get stuck in a traffic jam so we bypassed the city centre.
(avoid
) We bypassed the city centre to avoid getting stuck a traffic jam.

 

Fill in an appropriate purpose word and put the verbs into the correct form

      Dear Sir / Madam,

      We have produced this information sheet (1 ) in order to (make) make the registration procedure easier for you. Read it carefully (2) so as to (familiarise) familiarise yourself with the procedure.

      Each faculty must register a certain time so please come on time (3)so as not to (not / make)make the process more difficult. You must report to the registrar's office (4) to give (give) her your personal details. You must also bring your passport with you (5) so that they (verify) can verify these details. After this you must go to the main section (6)in order to (have) have your photograph taken. You will then be given your student ID card which may be used (7) to take out (take out) books. We include a map of the campus (8) in order for you (not/get) not to get lost ….

Clauses of Concession

     Although / Even though / Though + clause
Although it snowed heavily, he came to the meeting.
It snowed heavily. He came to the meeting, though.

     Despite / In spite of + noun / -ing form
Despite being ill / his illness, he went to the party.

     Despite / In spite of the fact + that clause
In spite of the fact that he was ill, he went to the party.

     While / whereas / but / on the other hand / yet + clause
He worked hard, yet he failed to meet the deadline.

     Nevertheless / however + clause
He has lots of experience; however, he didn't get the job.

     However / No matter how + adj/adv + subject (+may) + verb
However fast he runs, he can't beat me.

       adj /adv + though + subject + verb (/may + bare inf)
Clever though he is, his laziness caused him to fail the exam.
Much though I may want it, I can't afford a holiday this year.

       adj / adv + as + subject + verb
Skin as he is, he eats a lot.

 

     A comma is used when the clause of concession either precedes or follows the main clause

     Even though he was tired, he went to the party.

      He went to the party, even though he was tired.

 

Choose the correct item

         Yet / No matter what he does to please her, she always finds something to complain about.

         Although / However I set my alarm clock for 7.00 am, it didn't go off.

         Despite / Even though the bad weather forecast, Susan and Jim went climbing.

         She tries hard, although / yet she makes little progress.

         Tom's wife drives better than he does, whereas / although he won't admit it.

         Lots of people drive fast although / in spite of police warnings.

         Bad mannered though / yet he is, he has lots of friends.

        She is a brilliant singer; while / nevertheless, she refuses to sing in public.

        Rich as / even though they are, they never buy expensive things.

        However / While much she denies it, she does dye her hair blonde.

        She speaks Japanese fluently, yet / despite she has never visited the country.

        In spite of / However all the bad publicity, the film became a box office success.

        Janine turned up at the wedding even though / despite she wasn't invited.

        However / Though hard he tries, he'll never outsmart Pat.

        Much as / yet I admire her, I can't accept her point of view on this matter.

 

Exclamations

      Exclamations are used to express anger, fear, shock, surprise, etc.

       What + a(n) + (adj) + sing count N     What a sweet baby!

       What + (adj) + uncount / pl N
What utter nonsense! What beautiful paintings!

       How + adj / adv    How tall he is! How quickly she walks!

       How + adj + a(n) + N     How clever a boy!

       You + (adj) + N    You lucky girl!

       Such (a /an) + (adj) + N     She's such an arrogant person!

       So + adj / adv      She's so arrogant!

       Adv / adverbial particle + subject + verb of movement
Off the competitors went!

       Here / There + subject + verb       Here she is!

Types of clauses

Sentences can consist of main and subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clauses can be:

1)Noun clauses

I suppose that he'll be back in an hour.

Relative clauses

I saw the man who started the fight.

Adverbial clauses. i.e. clauses of manner, timr, place, reson, concession, purpose, result, comparison, condition

Although she was well-trained, she did not get the job.

Relative clauses are introduced by:a)      Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that);

b)      Relative adverbs (when, where, why).

Relative pronouns Subject of the verb of the relative clause (cannot be omitted) - used for people: who / that
e.g. That's the girl who / that lives next door.- used for things /animals: which / that
e.g. I saw a film which / that was directed by Polanski. Relative pronouns Object of the verb of the relative clause (can be omitted) - Used for people: who / whom / that
e.g. The boy (who /whom /that) he waved to is his cousin.- Used for things /animals: which / that
e.g. The dog (which / that) you saw outside is my neighbour's. Possession (cannot be omitted)- Used for people: whose
e.g. That's the man whose wife was killed in an accident.- Used for things / animals: whose / of which,
e.g. That's the table leg of which / whose leg is broken.

 

Relative adverbs- Time
when (= in / on / at which)
1995 was the year (when) I finished my studies.- Place
where (= in / at / on / to which)
That's the place (where) we went last week.

- Reason
why (= for which)
That's the reason (why) I moved house.

Insert the right pronoun or adverb

2003 was the year (1) (when) I took my first holiday abroad. We were students at the time, with very little money, which was the reason (2) (why) we decided to go to Spain. We booked through the local travel agent, (3) who went to a lot of trouble to find us a resort (4) which was quiet by day but (5) which had a lively night life. I went with my friend Cynthia, (6) who has been my friend for nearly ten years now. The flight to Malaga, (7) which took over five hours, was very comfortable. Cynthia, (8) who was a little nervous, was comforted by an air stewardess (9) who was very helpful. The hotel (10) (where) we stayed was just a 10-minute walk from the centre. It had a swimming pool and a gym (11) (which) we used every morning. We spent the first day of our holiday on the beach (12) which was beautiful. Unfortunately, when we got back to the hotel that night my friend, (13) whose skin is very pale, realized that she got badly burnt. The sun cream (14) (which) she had applied was not enough.

Where possible, remove the relative pronoun

1. Who's that man that Lisa is talking to? that

2. I'm calling about the advert that appeared in yesterday's 'Evening Echo'. impossible

3. Isn't that the hotel where Greg and Sally had their wedding reception? where

4. The gentleman with whom you spoke last time is no longer with the company. whom, with after spoke

5. That's the couple whose house was burgled last week. impossible

6. The bulldog that attacked the little girl was destroyed. impossible

7. The reason why the accident happened has never been clarified. why

8. Is this the picture to which you were referring? which, to at the end

9. She always chooses a moment to call when everyone's out of the office. impossible

10.That's the car that we were thinking of buying. that

Defining / non-defining relative clauses A defining relative clause gives necessary information and is essential to the meaning of the main clause.
It is not put between commas.
People who drive carelessly should be banned from the roads. A non-defining relative clause gives extra information which is not essential to the meaning of the main clause.
It is put between commas.
Mr Jones, who helps me with the garden, was taken to hospital last night.  The commas can change the meaning The playes, who were involved in the fight, were sent off the pitch. (all the players were sent off)The players who were involved in the fight were sent off the pitch. (only the players who were involved in the fight were sent off)

 Give the information in brackets as a relative clause (defining or non-defining) 

  1. Susan said something. (I couldn't hear it clearly)
    Susan said something that / which / - I couldn't hear clearly. D

  2. Julia's father has just come back from his skiing holiday. (he's over 80) ND

  3. The problems faced by the company are being resolved. (I'll look at these in detail in a moment) company, which I'll…, are being resolved ND

  4. She was greatly influenced by her father. (she adored him) whom she adored D

  5. He pointed to the stairs. (They led to the cellar) that led to the cellar D

  6. These drugs have been withdrawn from the sale. (they are used to treat stomach ulcers) …, which are used,… ND

  7. The singer had to cancel her concert. (she was recovering from flu) …,who was…, … ND

  8. The minister talked about the plans for tax reform. (he will reveal them next month) …, which he will… ND

  9. I have two older sisters. (I love them very much) …, whom I love… ND

  10. She bought a new dress. (she wore it to my party) …, which she wore… ND

  11. My friend has a new cat. (its name is Riley)

  12. The cheque only arrived today. (I posted it last week)

13. I'm reading Wuthering Heights. (it was written by Emily Bronte)

  1. Paul's new car has broken down. (the car cost him $10,000)

  2. Here's a photograph of the hotel. (we stayed there last summer)

 

Fill in the relative pronoun and add commas where necessary

  1. The woman who bought the house next door is very friendly.

  2. Ann, who is a generous person, took us on holiday.

  3. The hospital where he was treated is a very good one.

  4. People who don't eat meat are called vegetarians.

  5. The house where they live is very small.

  6. The book (that) I am reading at the moment is vety interesting.

  7. The hotel which is opposite the museum is very expensive.

  8. People who speak two languages equally well are called bilingual.

  9. Dublin, that has a population of one million, is a beautiful city.

  10. People who mug other people should be punished.

  11. My best friend, whose name is Sarah, is living in Ireland now.

  12. Greece, which has many beautiful islands, is a great place for holidays.

  13. People who drink and drive should be heavily fined.

  14. Women who are pregnant should not smoke.

  15. The flat where she lives is very cold.

  16. Majorca was the first place where we went on holiday together.

  17. The man whom the police arrested last night was charged with murder.

  18. The newspaper that I buy is always full of interesting articles.

  19. The velvet dress which she wore to the party was very expensive.

  20. The students who were involved in the march were arrested.

Positive addition

      and

      both … and

      Not only … (but also / as well)

      Too

      Moreover

      In addition to

      Furthermore

      Further

      Also

      Not to mention the fact that

      Besides

She is young and successful. / She is both young and successful.

 

Negative addition

      Neither … nor

      Nor

      Neither

      Either

 

Neither Jane nor Paula has any desire to meet him again.

Jane has no desire to meet him again. Nor does Paula.

 

Contrast

      But                                                 Not … but

      Although                                       While

      Whereas                                       Despite

      Even if                                           Even though

      On the other hand                        However

      in contrast                         (and) yet                   

      At the same time

 

She can speak Russian fluently; however, he is unable to read or write it.

 

Similarity

      Similarly

      Likewise

      In the same way

      Equally

 

When you move house, you must notify the post office of your change of address.

Similarly, you must register with the local county council.

 

Concession

      But                                     even so

      However                           (and) still

      (and) yet                            nevertheless

      Although                            On the other hand

      Even though                     despite / in spite of

      Regardless of                  admittedly

      Considering                     whereas

      While                                 nonetheless

She applied for the job even though she wasn't suitably qualified.

Alternative

      Or

      On the other hand

      Either … or

      Alternatively

They could take a holiday now or / on the other hand / alternatively they could wait until the summer.

 

Emphasis

      Besides                            not only this but … also

      As well                              what is more

      In fact                                 as a matter of fact

      Actually                             to tell you the truth

      Indeed                               let alone

 

I find him pushy and demanding and, what is more, he is self-centered.

Exemplification

      As                                      for example

      Such as                             fo instance

      Like                                   particularly

      Especially             in particular

 

I enjoyed all the books you lent me but in particular I liked `The Ghost'.

 

Clarification

      This is to say

      Specifically

      In other words

      To put it another way

      I mean

 

He needs to concentrate more on his schoolwork. Specifically, he has to pay more attention to his homework.

 

Cause / reason

      As                                      because

      Because of                       since

      Due to                               on the grounds that

      Seeing that                       in view of

      Owing to                for

      Now that                so

 

The company has decided to take on more staff now that sales are increasing.   

 

Manner

      As

      (in) the way

      How

      The way in which

      (in) the same way (as)

      As if

      As though

 

The manager explained how the organization could increase productivity.

Condition

      If                                         in case

      Assuming (that)                on condition (that)

      Provided (that)                 providing (that)

      Unless                               in the event (that)

      In the event of                   as / so long as

      Whether                            granted/ granting (that)

      Only if                                even if

      Otherwise                         or (else)

      In case of

Please notify us in the event that / in case you are unable to attend the meeting.

 

Consequence of a condition

      Consequently

      Then

      Under those circumstances

      If so

      If not

      So

      Therefore

      In case that

      Otherwise

I may take a long lunch break tomorrow. If so, I can go to the hairdresser's then.

 

Purpose

      So that

      So as (not) to

      In order (not) to

      In order that

      For fear (that)

      In case

 

I took plenty of magazines with me in case I got bored during the flight.

 

Effect / result

      Such / so … that

      Consequently

      For this reason

      As a consequence

      Thus

      Therefore

      So

The room at the hotel was double-booked and, as a consequence, we were moved to another hotel.

 

Comparison

      As … as

      Than

      Half as … as

      Nothing like

      The … the

      Twice as … as

      Less … than

You look nothing like your sister.

 

Time

      When

      Whenever

      As while

      Now (that)

      Before

      Until

      Till

      After

      since

Join the sentences. Identify the functions of the linking words in brackets.

1.      You could leave now. You could wait and ride with us. (either … or) You could either leave or wait. ALTERNATIVE

2.      He's not a very good tennis player. He practices all the time. (considering) Considering the fact he practices… CONCESSION

3.      He decided to change jobs. He wanted a chance to be more creative. (on he grounds that) …on the grounds of the fact that he wanted to be… REASON

4.      I don't feel like going out tonight. I never enjoy myself at discos. (besides) Besides I never enjoy… POSITIVE ADDITION

5.      He's afraid of heights. He wants to go rock climbing. (and yet) …and yet he wants… CONTRAST

6. You should write down your appointments. You won't forget the. (so that) …so that you won't forget them… PURPOSE

7. We're going to go on with the project. They say it's no longer necessary. (even if) CONCESION

8. This house is exactly what we are looking for. It's a real bargain. (moreover) POSITIVE ADDITION

9. She hardly ever practices the piano. She plays very well (even though) She plays very well even though… CONCESION

10. It was an interesting conference. There was one speaker who was boring. (in spite of) …in spite of the fact there was one boring speaker CONTRAST

11. She always gives money to poor people. She's extremely generous. (in other words) POSITIVE ADDITION

12. I enjoy her company. She's been a great help to me. (not only … but also) Not only do I enjoy her company but she's been also a great help to me. POSITIVE ADDITION

13. She sings like an opera star. She isn't a star though. (as if) She sings as if she were an opera star. MANNER

14. Exercising will help you feel better. Eating less will improve your health. (likewise) SIMILARITY

15. He isn't qualified for the job. He hasn't had much practical experience. (what is more) POSITIVE ADDITION

1



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