ÿþP O D S T A W Y C H E M I I
I n |y n i e r i a B i o m e d y c z n a
W y k Ba d I I I
P l a n
" B u f o r y c d
" H y d r o l i z a
" R e a k c j e s t r c a n i a
" R e a k c j e z o b o j t n i a n i a
R o z t w o r y b u f o r o w e
§ð R o z t w o r y b u f o r o w e m a j z d o l n o [
u t r z y m y w a n i a p H r o z t w o r u n a s t a By m
p o z i o m i e ( w p r z y b l i |e n i u ) .
§ð S k Ba d a j s i o n e z j e d n e j l u b k i l k u s u b s t a n c j i ,
w k t ó r y c h i s t n i e j c a r ó w n o w a g a d y s o c j a c j i
n i w e l u j e d o d a t e k s i l n e g o k w a s u l u b z a s a d y .
§ð P r z y k Ba d y :
- m i e s z a n i n a s Ba b e g o k w a s u i j e g o s o l i z m o c n
z a s a d ( n p . C H 3 C O O H i C H 3 C O O N a ) ;
- m i e s z a n i n a s Ba b e j z a s a d y i j e j s o l i z m o c n y m
k w a s e m ( n p . N H 4 O H i N H 4 C l ) ;
- n i e k t ó r e s o l e ( n p . C H 3 C O O N H 4 ) ;
- m i e s z a n i n a d w ó c h s o l i ( n p . K H 2 P O 4 i K 2 H P O 4 ) .
M e c h a n i z m d z i a Ba n i a r o z t w o r u b u f o r o w e g o
B u f o r o c t a n o w y s k Ba d a s i z k w a s u o c t o w e g o i j e g o
s o l i z m o c n z a s a d :
C H 3 C O O H +ð H 2 O ¬ð¾ð¾ð®ð C H 3 C O O -ð +ð H 3 O +ð
C H 3 C O O N a ¾ð¾ð
¾ð®ð C H 3 C O O -ð +ð N a +ð
K w a s o c t o w y j e s t e l e k t r o l i t e m s Ba b y m j e s t z d y s o c j o w a n y
c z [c i o w o , a s ó l e l e k t r o l i t e m m o c n y m i z d y s o c j o w a n y m
c a Bk o w i c i e . Z a t e m b i o r c p o d u w a g e f e k t w s p ó l n e g o j o n u
m o |n a n a p i s a w p r z y b l i |e n i u :
c H O +ð ×ð c s ó l
c H O +ð ×ð c C H C O O -ð
3
3 3
K C H C O O H »ð »ð
3
c C H C O O H
c K W A S
3
c C H C O O =ð c s ó l ; c C H C O O H =ð c K W A S
-ð
3
3
M e c h a n i z m d z i a Ba n i a r o z t w o r u b u f o r o w e g o ( 2 )
c K w a s
c H O +ð »ð ×ðK C H C O O H
3
3
c s ó l
æð öð
c s ó l ÷ð
p H »ð p K C H C O O H +ð l o g çð
3 çð
c K W A S ÷ð
èð øð
J e [l i d o d a m y m o c n e g o k w a s u ( p r z y b y w a j o n ó w H 3 O + ) , t o
d y s o c j a c j a k w a s u u l e g n i e d a l s z e m u c o f n i c i u , j e [l i m o c n e j
z a s a d y ( p r z y b y w a j o n ó w O H - ) , j e g o d y s o c j a c j a w z r o [n i e
( r ó w n o w a g a d y s o c j a c j i w o d y ! ) .
p H z m i e n i s i n i e z n a c z n i e , g d y | o b a s t |e n i a s p o d
l o g a r y t m e m . . .
D z i a Ba n i e r o z t w o r u b u f o r o w e g o ( 3 )
B u f o r o c t a n o w y z a w i e r a 1 m C H 3 C O O H i 1 m C H 3 C O O N a ,
j e g o p H w y n o s i z a t e m :
æð öð
c s ó l ÷ð
p H »ð p K C H C O O H +ð l o g çð =ð p K C H C O O H +ð 0 =ð 4 . 7 4
3 çð 3
c K W A S ÷ð
èð øð
J e |e l i d o d a m y 0 , 1 m o l a m o c n e g o k w a s u ( H C l ) , t o e f e k t
b d z i e t a k i , j a k b y s t |e n i e s o l i z m a l a Bo , a k w a s u
w z r o s Bo :
æð öð
c s ó l -ð 0 . 1
÷ð
p H »ð p K C H C O O H +ð l o g çð =ð 4 . 7 4 -ð 0 . 0 8 =ð 4 . 6 6
3 çð
c K W A S +ð 0 . 1 ÷ð
èð øð
G d y b y t a k s a m i l o [ k w a s u d o d a d o c z y s t e j w o d y ,
p H z m i e n i Bo b y s i z 7 n a 1 . . .
D z i a Ba n i e r o z t w o r u b u f o r o w e g o ( 4 )
p H
8
p o j e m n o [
r o z t w o r u
6
b u f o r o w e g o
1
4
2
0
0 . 0 0 0 . 5 0 1 . 0 0
i l o [ m o c n e g o k w a s u [ m o l ]
b e z b u f o r u z b u f o r e m
H y d r o l i z a s o l i
" H y d r o l i z a s o l i j e s t z j a w i s k i e m z w i z a n y m z r e a k c j j o n ó w
p o w s t a By c h z d y s o c j a c j i s o l i z w o d :
C H 3 C O O N a ®ð C H 3 C O O -ð +ð N a +ð
H 2 O «ð O H -ð +ð H +ð
C H 3 C O O N a +ð H 2 O «ð C H 3 C O O H +ð N a O H
( s ó l j e s t e l e k t r o l i t e m m o c n y m i d y s o c j u j e c a Bk o w i c i e ,
w o d a j e s t e l e k t r o l i t e m s Ba b y m i d y s o c j u j e c z [c i o w o )
C H 3 C O O -ð +ð H 2 O +ð N a +ð «ð C H 3 C O O H +ð N a +ð +ð O H -ð
z a s a d a s o d o w a j e s t e l e k t r o l i t e m m o c n y m i j e s t
c a Bk o w i c i e z d y s o c j o w a n a , k w a s o c t o w y - e l e k t r o l i t
s Ba b y - t y l k o c z [c i o w o , z a t e m r o z t w ó r b d z i e m i a B
o d c z y n z a s a d o w y . . .
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 2 )
C H 3 C O O -ð +ð H 2 O «ð C H 3 C O O H +ð O H -ð
S t a Ba r ó w n o w a g i r e a k c j i h y d r o l i z y :
c O H ×ð c C H C O O H
-ð
'
3
K h =ð
c C H C O O -ð ×ð c H O
2
3
j e [l i s t |e n i e w o d y u z n a z a s t a Be o r a z p o m n o |y l i c z n i k i m i a n o w n i k
p r z e z s t |e n i e j o n ó w h y d r o n i o w y c h , t o :
K W
c O H ×ð c C H C O O H ×ð c H O +ð
-ð
3
' =ð
3
K h ×ð c H O =ð K h =ð
K C H C O O H
2
c C H C O O -ð ×ð c H O +ð
3
3 3
S k o r o m o |n a z d e f i n i o w a s t a B h y d r o l i z y , t o m o |n a r ó w n i e |
o k r e [l i s t o p i e D h y d r o l i z y ²
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 3 )
+ð
N H 4 C l ®ð N H 4 +ð C l -ð
+ð
N H 4 +ð H 2 O +ð C l -ð «ð N H 3 +ð H 3 O +ð +ð C l -ð
c H O +ð ×ð c N H ×ð c O H
-ð
K w
3
'
3
K h ×ð c H O =ð =ð
2
c N H ×ð c O H K N H O H
+ð -ð
4
4
k w a s s o l n y j e s t e l e k t r o l i t e m m o c n y m i j e s t c a Bk o w i c i e
z d y s o c j o w a n y , z a s a d a a m o n o w a - e l e k t r o l i t s Ba b y - t y l k o
c z [c i o w o , z a t e m r o z t w ó r b d z i e m i a B o d c z y n k w a [n y . . .
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 4 )
C z y m o |n a o b l i c z y p H l u b p O H r o z t w o r u s o l i p o j e j h y d r o l i z i e ?
C H 3 C O O -ð +ð H 2 O «ð C H 3 C O O H +ð O H -ð
c O H ×ð c C H C O O H
-ð
'
3
K h =ð
c C H C O O -ð ×ð K h
c C H C O O -ð ×ð c H O 3
2 c O H =ð
3
-ð
c C H C O O H
3
c C H C O O -ð =ð c O H
-ð
3
c O H =ð ² ×ð c s
-ð
c C H C O O H =ð c s -ð c O H
-ð
3
²2 ×ð c s
K h =ð
1 -ð ²
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 5 )
§ð J a k i j e s t o d c z y n 0 , 1 M r o z t w o r u C H 3 C O O N a ?
§ð P r z y j m i j m y w a r t o [ s t a Be j d y s o c j a c j i K k w = 1 · 1 0 - 5 ;
w ó w c z a s w a r t o [ s t a Be j h y d r o l i z y w y n o s i 1 · 1 0 - 9
K W
1 0 -ð1 4
'
K h =ð =ð =ð 1 0 -ð9
K C H C O O H 1 0 -ð5
3
§ð J e [l i s t o p i e D h y d r o l i z y ² j e s t n i e w i e l k i , m o |e m y
s k o r z y s t a z u p r o s z c z o n e g o w z o r u :
K h
1 0 -ð9
² »ð =ð =ð 1 0 -ð 4
c s 0 . 1
w ó w c z a s c O H - = 1 0 - 4 · 0 , 1 = 1 0 - 5 ; p O H w y n o s i 5 ,
c z y l i p H = 9
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 6 )
N a C l ®ð N a +ð +ð C l -ð
N a +ð +ð H 2 O +ð C l -ð «ð N a +ð +ð H 2 O +ð C l -ð
c h l o r e k s o d o w y j e s t s o l m o c n e j z a s a d y N a O H i m o c n e g o
k w a s u H C l , k t ó r e s c a Bk o w i c i e z d y s o c j o w a n e . S ó l n i e u l e g a
h y d r o l i z i e , a o d c z y n j e j r o z t w o r u j e s t o b o j t n y . . .
k w a s z a s a d a h y d r o l i z a o d c z y n
U W A G A !
m o c n y m o c n a b r a k o b o j e t n y
d o t y c z y k w a s ó w
i z a s a d d y s o -
m o c n y s Ba b a z a c h o d z i k w a [n y
c j u j c y c h
j e d n o s t o p -
s Ba b y m o c n a z a c h o d z i z a s a d o w y
n i o w o
z a l e |y o d K d k w a s u
s Ba b a s Ba b y z a c h o d z i
i z a s a d y
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 7 )
P r z y p a d k i t r o c h b a r d z i e j s k o m p l i k o w a n e
§ð J a k i o d c z y n m a j w o d o r o s o l e , s o l e s Ba b y c h k w a s ó w i
m o c n y c h z a s a d ? Z a s a d o w y ? ? ?
D y s o c j a c j a w o d o r o w g l a n u s o d o w e g o N a H C O 3 :
-ð
N a H C O 3 ®ð N a +ð +ð H C O 3
D y s o c j a c j a k w a s u w g l o w e g o :
c H O +ð ×ð c H C O
-ð
-ð
3 3
H 2 C O 3 ¬ð¾ð¾ð®ð H 3 O +ð +ð H C O 3 K 1 =ð
a H C O 3
2
c H O +ð ×ð c C O
2 -ð
-ð 2 -ð 3
3
H C O 3 ¬ð¾ð¾ð®ð H 3 O +ð +ð C O 3 K 2 =ð
c H C O
-ð
3
K 1 = 4 , 3 · 1 0 - 7 K 2 = 5 , 6 · 1 0 - 1 1
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 8 )
P r z y p a d k i s k o m p l i k o w a n e
h y d r o l i z a d y s o c j a c j a
-ð 2 -ð
H 2 C O 3 +ð O H -ð «ð H C O 3 +ð H 2 O «ð H 3 O +ð +ð C O 3
m o |l i w e s d w i e r e a k c j e k o n k u r e n c y j n e
K W
1 0 -ð1 4
K h =ð =ð =ð 2 . 3 ×ð 1 0 -ð8
K 1 4 . 3 ×ð 1 0 -ð 7
K d y s =ð K 2 =ð 5 . 6 ×ð 1 0 -ð1 1
P o n i e w a | K d y s < < K h ( 3 r z d y ! ) , a o b i e s t a Be m a j t a k i s a m
m i a n o w n i k , p r z e w a |a h y d r o l i z a i r o z t w ó r m a o d c z y n
z a s a d o w y . . .
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 9 )
P r z y p a d k i s k o m p l i k o w a n e
D y s o c j a c j a w o d o r o s i a r c z a n u ( I V ) s o d o w e g o N a H S O 3 :
-ð
N a H S O 3 ®ð N a +ð +ð H S O 3
D y s o c j a c j a k w a s u s i a r k o w e g o ( I V ) :
c H O +ð ×ð c H S O
-ð
-ð
3 3
H 2 S O 3 ¬ð¾ð¾ð®ð H 3 O +ð +ð H S O 3 K 1 =ð
c H S O 3
2
c H O +ð ×ð c S O
2 -ð
-ð 2 -ð 3 3
H S O 3 ¬ð¾ð¾ð®ð H 3 O +ð +ð S O 3 K 2 =ð
c H S O
-ð
3
K 1 = 1 , 7 · 1 0 - 2 K 2 = 6 , 2 · 1 0 - 6
H y d r o l i z a s o l i ( 1 0 )
P r z y p a d k i s k o m p l i k o w a n e
h y d r o l i z a d y s o c j a c j a
-ð 2 -ð
H 2 S O 3 +ð O H -ð «ð H S O 3 +ð H 2 O «ð H 3 O +ð +ð S O 3
m o |l i w e s d w i e r e a k c j e k o n k u r e n c y j n e
K W
1 0 -ð1 4
K h =ð =ð =ð 5 . 9 ×ð 1 0 -ð1 3
K 1 1 . 7 ×ð 1 0 -ð2
K d y s =ð K 2 =ð 6 . 2 ×ð 1 0 -ð6
P o n i e w a | K d y s > > K h ( 7 r z d ó w ! ) , a o b i e s t a Be m a j t a k i s a m
m i a n o w n i k , p r z e w a |a d y s o c j a c j a i r o z t w ó r m a o d c z y n
k w a [n y . . .
J a k z t e g o w i d a , n a w e t s ó l m o c n e j z a s a d y i s Ba b e g o
k w a s u m o |e m i e o d c z y n k w a [n y . . .
R e a k c j e s t r c a n i a
" D e f i n i c j a ( 1 )
R e a k c j a s t r c a n i a z a c h o d z i g d y
w y s t p u j k a t i o n y o r a z a n i o n y , k t ó r e
Bc z c s i t w o r z t r u d n o
r o z p u s z c z a l n y z w i z e k ( w y t r c a s i
o s a d )
" D e f i n i c j a ( 2 )
R e a k c j a s t r c a n i a z a c h o d z i g d y
z o s t a n i e p r z e k r o c z o n y i l o c z y n s t |e D
j o n ó w w r o z t w o r z e n a s y c o n y m
P r z y k Ba d r e a k c j i s t r c a n i a o s a d u
" W w y n i k u z m i e s z a n i a w o d n y c h r o z t w o r ó w A g N O 3 i K C l w y t r a c i B
s i b i a By o s a d . J a k i t o o s a d ?
M i e s z a n i n a z a w i e r a j o n y : A g + , N O 3 - , K + , C l -
" J a k i e s m o |l i w e k o m b i n a c j e ?
Z l i s t y j o n ó w w y n i k a |e A g C l i K N O 3
K t ó r y z e z w i z k ó w ( A g C l c z y K N O 3 ) t w o r z y
o s a d ?
Z a s a d y r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i
P r z e w i d y w a n i e s t a By c h p r o d u k t ó w w r e a k c j a c h s t r c a n i a o s a d ó w
w y m a g a z n a j o m o [c i r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i s u b s t a n c j i j o n o w y c h w w o d z i e
( t a b l i c e r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i )
W i k s z o [ s o l i a z o t a n u ( V ) ( N O 3 - ) j e s t r o z p u s z c z a l n a w
w o d z i e
W i k s z o [ s o l i N a + , K + , N H 4 + j e s t r o z p u s z c z a l n a w w o d z i e
W i k s z o [ c h l o r k ó w ( C l - ) j e s t r o z p u s z c z a l n a w w o d z i e
o p r ó c z A g C l , P b C l 2 i H g 2 C l 2
W i k s z o [ s o l i s i a r c z a n u ( V I ) ( S O 4 2 - ) j e s t r o z p u s z c z a l n a
w w o d z i e o p r ó c z B a S O 4 , P b S O 4 , C a S O 4 , S r S O 4
W i k s z o [ s i a r c z k ó w ( S 2 - ) , w g l a n ó w ( C O 3 2 - ) o r a z
f o s f o r a n ó w ( P O 4 3 - ) j e s t z a s a d n i c z o n i e r o z p u s z c z a l n a w
w o d z i e
W r a c a m y d o p o p r z e d n i e g o p r z y k Ba d u
Z a p i s c z s t e c z k o w y
A g N O 3 ( a q ) +ð K C l ( a q ) «ð A g C l s +ð K N O 3 ( a q )
Z a p i s c z s t e c z k o w o - j o n o w y
- -
A g +ð +ð N O 3 +ð K +ð +ð C l - «ð A g C l s +ð K +ð +ð N O 3
R o z t w ó r n a s y c o n y A g +ð +ð C l - «ð¯ð A g C l
[ A g +ð] ×ð[ C l -ð]
K =ð
[ A g C l ]
I l o c z y n r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i - i l o c z y n s t |e D j o n ó w z n a j d u j c y c h s i w n a s y c o n y m
r o z t w o r z e e l e k t r o l i t u , p o d n i e s i o n y c h d o o d p o w i e d n i c h p o t g , .
I r =ð [ A g +ð ] ×ð [ C l -ð ]
P r z y p a d e k o g ó l n y
A m B n «ð m A n +ð +ð n B m -ð I r =ð [ A n +ð ] m ×ð [ B m -ð ] n
I r
n +ð m
X =ð
m m n n
I l o c z y n r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i I r z a l e |y o d
t e m p e r a t u r y
X - r o z p u s z c z a l n o [
W z a l e |n o [c i o d t e g o , c z y r e a k c j a
( m o l / d m 3 )
r o z p u s z c z a n i a s o l i j e s t e g z o - c z y
e n d o t e r m i c z n a r o z p u s z c z a l n o [ a l b o m a l e j e ,
a l b o r o [n i e z e w z r o s t e m t e m p e r a t u r y
( z g o d n i e z r e g u B p r z e k r y L e C h a t e l i e r a )
S u b s t a n c j a + r o z p u s z c z a l n i k «ð r o z t w ó r ( DðH )
DðH > 0 T ð, X ð
DðH < 0 T ð, X ¯ð
O d c z e g o z a l e |y r o z p u s z c z a l n o [ ? ( T = c o n s t )
C z y n n i k i w p By w a j c e n a r o z p u s z c z a l n o [:
" H y d r o l i z a j o n ó w p o w s t a By c h z d y s o c j a c j i t r u d n o
r o z p u s z c z a l n e j s o l i : w z r o s t r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i ðX
" p H r o z t w o r u : w z r o s t l u b o b n i |e n i e r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i :
D e c y d u j e m e c h a n i z m h y d r o l i z y ( k a t i o n o w a c z y
a n i o n o w a ) o r a z o r a z w a r t o [ p H r o z t w o r u
" O b e c n o [ j o n ó w p o c h o d z c y c h o d i n n y c h e l e k t r o l i t ó w
w r o z t w o r z e
E f e k t w s p ó l n e g o j o n u : o b n i |e n i e r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i
¯ðX
W p By w s i By j o n o w e j : w z r o s t r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i ðX
P o d s u m o w a n i e :
W r o z t w o r z e n a s y c o n y m , w d a n e j t e m p e r a t u r z e
A m B n «ð m A n +ð +ð n B m -ð I r =ð [ A n +ð ] m ×ð [ B m -ð ] n
W r o z t w o r z e , w d a n e j t e m p e r a t u r z e
L =ð [ A n +ð ] m ×ð [ B m -ð ] n
" J e |e l i u k Ba d z n a j d u j e s i w s t a n i e r ó w n o w a g i
d y n a m i c z n e j t o L = I r i r o z t w ó r j e s t n a s y c o n y
" J e |e l i r o z t w ó r j e s t n i e n a s y c o n y t o L < I r
" J e |e l i r o z t w ó r j e s t p r z e s y c o n y t o L > I r i w t e d y b d z i e
s i w y t r c a B o s a d a | d o m o m e n t u , g d y L o s i g n i e
w a r t o [ I r
P o d s u m o w a n i e c d
" I m m n i e j s z a w a r t o [ i l o c z y n u r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i ,
t y m z w i z e k j e s t t r u d n i e j r o z p u s z c z a l n y , a t y m
s a m y m Ba t w i e j w y t r c i j e g o o s a d .
" W y k o r z y s t u j c w a r t o [c i i l o c z y n ó w
r o z p u s z c z a l n o [c i z w i z k ó w , m o |e m y p r z e w i d z i e
k o l e j n o [ w y t r c a n i a s i r ó |n y c h ( t r u d n o
r o z p u s z c z a l n y c h ) s o l i p o d w p By w e m w s p ó l n e g o
o d c z y n n i k a w y t r c a j c e g o .
R e a k c j e z a s a d o w o - k w a s o w e
" K w a s y i z a s a d y m o |n a i d e n t y f i k o w a z p u n k t u w i d z e n i a
p r a k t y c z n e g o , l u b z p u n k t u w i d z e n i a z j a w i s k c h e m i c z n y c h
" D e f i n i c j e A r r h e n i u s a i / l u b B r o n s t e d - L o w r e g o o p i s u j n a t u r k w a s u
i z a s a d y
" D e f i n i c j a A r r h e n i u s a
K w a s : w w y n i k u r e a k c j i d y s o c j a c j i p o w s t a j j o n y H +
& . c o p o z w a l a w y t Bu m a c z y w Ba [c i w o [c i k w a s ó w
m i n e r a l n y c h i o r g a n i c z n y c h
Z a s a d a : w w y n i k u r e a k c j i d y s o c j a c j i p o w s t a j j o n y
O H -
& . m o |n a Ba t w o w y t Bu m a c z y w Ba [c i w o [c i
z a s a d o w e w o d o r o t l e n k ó w m e t a l i
D e f i n i c j a A r r h e n i u s a s t o s u j e s i d o r o z t w o r ó w w o d n y c h
R e a k c j e z a s a d o w o - k w a s o w e
" D e f i n i c j a B r ø n s t e d a - L o w r e g o
K w a s : d o n o r p r o t o n ó w
Z a s a d a : a k c e p t o r p r o t o n ó w
+ð
N H 3 ( a q ) +ð H 2 O ( l ) «ð N H 4 ( a q ) +ð O H -ð
z a s a d a I k w a s I I k w a s I z a s a d a I I
k w a s I i z a s a d a I S t a n o w i s p r z |o n e p a r y
k w a s I I i z a s a d a I I k w a s - z a s a d a
-ð
H 2 S O 4 +ð H 2 O ( l ) «ð H S O 4 ( a q ) +ð H 3 O +ð
k w a s I z a s a d a I I z a s a d a I k w a s I I
Z a s a d y i k w a s y ( B r ø n s t e d )
W e d Bu g B r ø n s t e d a , r e a k c j a p o m i d z y k w a s e m i z a s a d
j e s t z a w s z e r e a k c j p r o w a d z c d o o t r z y m a n i a
s p r z |o n e j p a r y z a s a d a - k w a s
O H -ð +ð H 3 O +ð «ð H 2 O +ð H 2 O
z a s a d a I k w a s I I k w a s I z a s a d a I I
P r z y k Ba d y
+ð -
H 2 S O 4 H 2 O
H S O 4
k w a s H 3 O +ð N H 4
2
-
N H 3
S O 4 - H 2 O
O H -ð H S O 4
z a s a d a
R e a k c j e z o b o j t n i e n i a
Z g o d n i e z t e o r i A r r h e n i u s a
N a O H +ð H C l ®ð N a C l +ð H 2 O
k w a s + z a s a d a ®ð s ó l + w o d a
P r o c e s o g r a n i c z o n y d o r e a k c j i w w o d z i e
Z g o d n i e z t e o r i B r ø n s t e d a - L o w r e g o
H A + B «ðA - + B H +
P r o t o n j e s t p r z e n i e s i o n y z k w a s u ( H A ) d o z a s a d y ( B )
P r o c e s b a r d z i e j o g ó l n y
+ð
H F +ð N H 3 «ð F -ð +ð N H 4
H C l +ð H 2 O «ð C l -ð +ð H 3 O +ð
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