Grammar Train An introduction t Nieznany

Grammar Train

Jean-Louis Martine

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I Know Nouns!

Nouns

are names given to any object in the real world

Concrete nouns

any state of mind e.g. Love hate etc

Abstract nouns

The word Noun comes from the Latin word “numen” meaning name.

We can work out if a word is a noun by asking are selves is it a name.

When learning a foreign language one of the first and most useful question we

can learn to ask is……………………..

What is it called?

What do you call that?

You are asking for the name of something, a place, a person, an object or a

thing even an emotion is a noun.

Examples of Common Nouns (Common Names)

What is it called?

It’s called a

frog.

Frog

is the

name

we give to this kind of animal.

What is it called?

It’s called

snow.

What is it called?

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It’s called a

city.

* Be careful when deciding if you think a word is a noun or not. Emotions like

Love, Hate and Happiness are all nouns. Activities like play, work and leisure are
also nouns. All the colours are also nouns.

What is it called?

It’s called

love.

What is it called? It’s called

wonder.

What is it called? It’s called a

thunderstorm.

*Nouns come in more than one group.

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I Know

Common and Proper Nouns

common noun

is the name given to any non-specific item object or place.

Common nouns start with a small letter.

proper noun

is the name given to a specific object person or place.

Example

What is it called? It’s called a

cat. (Common noun)

What is your cat called? His name is

Tom.

(Proper noun)

What is it called? It’s called a

city

(Common noun)

What is this city called? It’s called

London.

(Proper noun)

Only names that are specific are proper nouns and all proper nouns are written

with a capital letter.

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I Know

Countable nouns and Un-countable nouns

Can you count it? Yes you can!

How many

cats

are there? There are five

cats!

(Countable noun)

How many

rivers

are there? There are hundreds of

rivers

. (Countable noun)

All nouns that can be counted can be expressed in the singular or plural. The

most common expression of the plural is by the addition of an “s” at the end of the
noun.

Cat

becomes

cats.

River

becomes

rivers.

This is known as “the regular” form. For most plural forms the addition of an

“s” to the original singular form will be sufficient to create the plural.

However there are many exceptions.

Here are some of the most common exceptions.

I Know Regular and Irregular countable nouns

Regular Nouns

Irregular Nouns

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Cat >

Cats

Chid >

Children

Pen >

Pens

Man

Men

Television >

Televisions

Woman

Women

Hammer >

Hammers

Person

People

School >

Schools

Mouse

Mice

Job >

Jobs

Sheep

Session >

Sessions

Series

Tradition >

Traditions

Kiss >

Kisses

Instrument >

Instruments

Tooth >

Teeth

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Can you count it? No you can’t!

Many Nouns cannot be counted by the nature of what they are that is it makes

no sense to use numbers when talking about them. This applies to all

abstract nouns

and some common nouns.

How much do you love me? I Love you a lot.

Correct

Can you count it? No you can’t

How many do you love me? I love you twelve!

Incorrect

Can you count it? No you can’t

You must really hate him. Yes I hate him a lot

Correct

Can you count it? No you can’t

You must hate him twenty-seven. I hate him thirty.

Incorrect

Can you count it? No you can’t

Other examples of uncountable nouns are liquids and similar things like sugar,

salt and butter, which are inherently difficult to count. There are ways that we can get
around this problem by the addition of something that is countable.

e.g.

1) Three

spoonfuls

sugar.

Instead of counting the sugar (grain by gain) we count how many spoons of
sugar we want.

Red = Uncountable noun

Blue = Countable counter part

The same is true of liquids. Like beer, wine, water or milk.

2) Three

glasses

wine.

3) Five

pints

beer.

4) Four

litters

milk

5) Six

bags

cement.

5) Two

pieces

furniture.

Nouns

Regular Countable Nouns

Irregular Countable Nouns

Uncountable Nouns

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular only

Cat >

Cats

Chid >

Children

Milk

Pen > Pens

Man

Men

Love

Television >

Televisions

Woman >

Women

Money

Hammer > Hammers

Person >

People

Furniture

School > Schools

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I know Possessive forms

The simplest way to explain this is that a possessive from of noun is used to

indicate ownership over something from the word

“possession”

, meaning to belong

to, or to be owned by.

The simplest way to spot a possessive noun is to look for

’s

It is John’s book. The book belongs to John.

That is Mary’s leg. It is part of her body.

That is Louis’ picture. Louis painted it.

Beijing is China’s capital city. Beijing belongs to China.

The Mississippi is America’s most famous river. The Mississippi belongs to

America.

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I Know

Compound Nouns and Noun Combinations

Nouns are often put together or combined to

express one thing,

this is

known

as a

noun combination.

When noun combinations are a regular occurrence

the two nouns are often joined by a

hyphen

–

or can even be written as one word.

When nouns are combined they act as one. The first noun in a noun combination often
tells us more about the second

“main”

noun acting in some way like an adjective.

Examples: of Compound nouns and noun combinations

light bulb

ice-cream

weekend

computer virus

timetable

battlefield

mobile phone

schoolbag

homework

I Know

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns are used to refer to groups of people. Although a group

contains more than one individual, collective nouns can be used in the singular,
depending on weather you want to emphasise, the group as a unified body or the
individuals within the group.

Everyone is happy

The Staff are happy

The Army is moving into position.

The Army are moving into position.

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I know Pronouns

Pronouns

are used to replace nouns or noun phrases when the noun is known

to avoid repetition of the noun in a sentence group of sentences.

e.g.

Bob was very happy Bob had just won the lottery.

Bob

was very happy

had just won the lottery.

Bob = Noun

he = Pronoun = Bob

There are eight types of pronoun:

Personal Pronouns

have two types

Subject

and

Object

they are used to

stand in place of a noun.

Subject Pronouns:

I, You, He, She, It, We, They, Who, Whoever,

Object Pronouns:

Me, You, Him, Her, It, Us, Them, Whom, Whomever,

They are also divided

to express

The Plural and The Singular of

The First Person:

Singular

I, me,

Plural

we, us

The Second Person:

Singular and Plural

you

The Third Person:

Singular

he, him, she, her, it,

Plural

they, them

This determines whether

am / is /

are

, is used and whether or not

, is

added to end of the verb in the formation of past tenses.

Reflexive Pronouns

have one type and are used to refer backwards or

inwards on the subject or object.

Think of the word refection.

Possessive pronouns

have two types Possessive pronouns and

Possessive

determiners

the difference being Possessive pronouns stand alone in a sentence e.g.

Think of the word possession.

It is

mine

And

Possessive determiners

always come before a noun e.g.

It is

book.

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PRONOUN CHART

Personal

Reflexives Possessive

Possessive

Subject

Object

pronoun

determiner

myself

mine

you

yourself

yours

your

him

himself

his

she

her

herself

hers

her

itself

its

ourselves

ours

our

you

yourselves

yours

your

they

them

themselves

theirs

their

Demonstrative Pronouns

help us to

demonstrate

something or point it out.

When these words stand alone they are considered to be

pronouns

because

they replace or stand in for a noun. When they are used before a noun they are
considered to be

determiners

because the determine which noun we are referring to

e,g, this ball or that

this, that, these, those,

He is a teacher.

(pronoun)

This book

(determiner)

Interrogative Pronouns

are used in the formation of questions and are

normally followed by a question mark. They can also be used in indirect questions
that do not require a question mark.

Think of the word interrogation meaning to

question.

who, whom, whose, what, which,

He said “What is it your name?”

He asked the man’s name.

(direct question)

(indirect question)

Relative Pronouns

are used to introduce relative clauses that come after a

noun or noun phrase. e.g.

He is

the man

that came in yesterday

Look at

the boy

with the blue hat.

Relative pronouns

act rather like

conjunctions

and join two parts of a sentence

together to give more information about the noun subject or object i.e. The clause is

to the noun.

that, which, who, whom, whose, what, whatever whomever

There are only two

Reciprocal Pronouns:

One another

(more than two or in

general) and

each other

(between two people or things). They are called such as they

are used to demonstrate a reciprocal relation between people or things.

The two boys played

with each other

. We should love

one another.

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I Know Determiners

Determiners

are a class of word that are used to help define or identify a

noun and are placed before it. You may have noticed that some of them can act as
Pronouns this is when they are used instead of the noun and replace it completely.

The two most commonly used determiners are:

“A, An,”

which are known as

The indefinite article

as they signify a noun

which is non-specific e.g.

A cat

Referring to no cat in particular

The definite article

“The”

which is used to signify a specific noun. e.g.

The cat

Referring to one cat in particular.

Possessive determiners

my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their,

indicate who or what the noun belongs to.

e.g.

My cat. Your cat. His cat. etc.

This reflects ownership or possession.

Demonstrative determiners

help us to demonstrate something or point it

out in exactly the same way as

demonstrative pronouns

except the do not replace the

noun but precede it adding the information.

e.g.

This cat, or that cat.

When these words stand alone they are considered to be

pronouns

. However

when they are used before a noun they are considered to be

determiners

this, that, these, those,

This is mine.

(pronoun)

This book is mine.

(determiner)

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I Know Quantifiers

Quantifiers

are very specific class of

determiner

and they are used to

signify number or quantity. Like all determiners quantifiers are place before a noun or
noun phrase.

The most easy to remember and use are the

Cardinal numbers

1 2 3 4 5 ….etc

and the

Ordinal numbers

First Second Third Forth Fifth…………….. Etc

They can precede any

concrete noun.

However with other

Quantifiers

there use is limited to either

countable

uncountable nouns

and or to refer to only to two items e.g.

both

Quantifier chat

Countable uncountable Singular

Plural

two

All

Another

Any

both

each

Either/neither

Enough

Every

Few/fewer/a few

Little/less/a little

Some

Many

Much

Several

A lot of

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I Know Adjectives

Adjectives

are words that give more information about a noun or pronoun.

They are often known as

describing

words.

Adjectives

are often related to Nouns or

Verbs i.e. they have a Noun or a Verb as their root. Many of these are followed by
“suffixes” (word endings):

-able -al -ate -an -ant -ent -ful -ist -ive -ory

-ous -some -wise -y

Sometimes the adjective has long out lived the usage of it’s

verb or noun root, as in the case of

impeccable

that originate from the Latin

“impeccabilis”

meaning not liable to sin.

Suffixes are not always used when a

Noun

acts as an

Adjective

e.g.

The cat

The

black

cat

What makes a word an

adjective

is the way it is used i.e. the “job” it is doing.

Adjectives give more information about a noun and tell us what kind of a thing it is,
that is they describe it.

Look at the sentence part

The cat

Adding Adjectives tells us more about the particular cat we are talking about.

What kind of cat is it?

It’s a big black cat.

It’s a

funny

cat. It’s a

big black

and

friendly

cat.

Noun >

Adjective

Verb >

Adjective

beauty >

beautiful

drink >

drinkable

truth >

truthful

work >

workable

courage >

courageous

like >

likeable

danger >

dangerous

talk >

talkative

obligation >

obligatory

communicate >

communicative

street >

streetwise

hurt >

hurtful

parent >

parental

lone >

lonesome

lone >

lonely

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I Know Verbs

Verbs

are typically referred to as

Action

(dynamic)

words however

this is only one of their many functions

Verbs

are also used to express a

state

mind, condition or a relationship between one thing and another. One of the chief
differences that can be drawn between verb types is

Lexical

that is, one based upon

the words meaning. Verbs that refer to States tend not to be used with

Continuous

forms,

(ing)

because states of mind and relationships are not processes that move

but are rather static by nature.

A second and equally important distinction that can be made between Verb

types is that between

Main Verbs

, verbs that function by themselves and convey the

key meaning in any group of verbs e.g. to love to hit, to sing, and

Auxiliary

(meaning to help)

verbs

that add or help to give extra meaning to the main verb.

Auxiliary verbs

cannot be used by them selves and must accompany a main verb e.g.

had (had breakfast), can (can swim), is (is sick) etc.

State and dynamic Verbs

This distinction is drawn between different kinds of

Main Verbs

State verbs

express

a state of mind

, to love, to hate, to know or

a relationship

, to be, to belong, to have, to resemble because state are not actions we

tend not uses them with continuous from e.g.

I love you.

Not

I am loving you.

I know him.

Not

I am knowing him.

I like ice-cream.

Not

I am liking ice-cream.

Dynamic Verbs

describe actions acts activities and processes: to hit, to run,

to jump, to change, to flow, to walk, to crawl,

By the very nature of the kinds of things

Dynamic Verbs

describe

continuous can be used.

I run.

(Present simple)

I am running.

(Present continuous)

I hit him.

(Present simple)

I am hitting him.

(Present continuous)

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List of State Verbs

State of mind

Relationships

to love

to be

to hate

to own

to know

to have

to like

to resemble

to understand

to belong

to need

to want

to wonder

to dislike

Regular and Irregular Verbs

Regular Verbs

Infinitive

Past simple

Past principle

Cast

Cost

Cut

Fit

Fit/Fitted

Fit

Hit

Let

Put

Read (long)

Read (short)

Set

Shut

Spread

Continuous

form of regular verbs

When making

the continuous

form or regular verbs the simple

addition of

ing

is used. e.g.

Cast > Casting Read > Reading

For words ending in a single consonant with a short vowel sound it is

necessary to double the last consonant to keep the vowel sound short. e.g.

Cut > Cu

ing Fit > Fi

ing Set > Se

ing

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Irregular Verbs

There are approximately 300 irregular verbs in the English language, and there

are no rules or easy way to tell whether or not a verb is regular or irregular. However
irregular verbs can be grouped in accordance with the pattern in which they change
form to make learning easier.

Changes in the past

Infinitive

Past simple

Past Participle

bind

bound

feed

fed

find

found

get

got

have

had

hear

heard

hold

Held

held

lay

laid

light

lit

make

made

meet

met

pay

paid

say

said

sell

Sold

sold

shoot

shot

sit

sat

stand

stood

tell

told

Changes in the past and past participle

Infinitive

Past simple

Past Participle

drink

drank

drunk

sink

sank

sunk

Irregular verbs

and

different to all other in so much as their forms

have no relation to each other in terms of spelling.

Present Tense

am/is/are

go(es)

Past Tense

was/were

went

Past Participle

been

gone

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I Know

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

shall / will / can / could / would / should / may / might / must /
need (n’t) / ought (not) to /

Modal auxiliary verbs differ from main verbs in two ways. The first difference is that
they cannot stand alone but must be used in conjunction with a full verb. This
function is exemplified in the name “

Auxiliary

” meaning to help or assist. The second

difference of modal auxiliary verbs is to do with their function as “

Mode changers”

Hence the name “Modal”

To understand modality more clearly consider the following examples:

Come to dinner.

(This sentence is an imperative and acts as an order)

Can you come to dinner?

(The use of can here is linked to ability rephrased: Are you

able to come to dinner. Remember

come

is the full verb

can

is the modal auxiliary

verb.)

Will you come to dinner?

(The use of

will

here is linked to intention. Rephrased do

you intend to come to dinner?)

You ought to come to dinner?

(The use of

ought to

here is being used to express the

speakers belief that s/he thinks X is a good idea.)

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I Know

Adverbs

What is an Adverb? Add Verb! Simply it is a word which adds additional information
to a verb. For example: Run

quickly

Run is the verb

quickly

is the adverb

Adverbs can come both before and after the verb. For example:

The boy ran

happily

down the road. The boy

happily

ran down the road.

Adverbs answer the question:

How?

About the verb

How did the boy run? He ran quickly.

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I Know

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are an extremely large and potentially confusing area of the English
language. The best way to describe a phrasal verb is to say that it is a number of
words taken together, as a set phrase with a particular meaning.

The one of the greatest problems with learning and teaching phrasal verbs is that there
is not necessarily a direct or obvious connection between to the constituent words and
the meaning of the phrasal verb itself. Another problem with phrasal verbs is that one
phrasal verb might have more than one meaning. Finally there are just so many
phrasal verbs in English it is difficult to know where to start and they are easy to
confuse with each other.

Due to the nature of Phrasal Verbs it is difficult to decisively say whether the full
under the heading of Grammar or Lexis. It is my opinion that it is best to consider
them primarily as Lexical items i.e. Vocabulary and then teach the necessary grammar
to with them.

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Verb Tenses

I know

The Present Simple

I do

Form

Subject Pronoun 1

and 3

person plural

Verb

I /you /we/ they +

Subject Pronoun 3

person singular / Noun

Verb

he/she/it/ Jack

* For The 3

person and noun constructions add either

to the verb.

Present Simple

examples chart

work in a bank.

teach English.

You

work in a bank.

You

teach English.

work in a bank.

teach English.

They

work in a bank.

They

teach English.

Jack

work

in a bank.

Jack

teach

English.

work

in a bank.

teach

English.

She

work

in a bank.

She

teach

English.

counts money in a
bank.

teach

English.

Note.

It refers to animals, machines and inanimate object therefore many verbs do not always make

sense with it.

Meaning

The Present Simple

is used to convey a general state of affairs. That

is to say when I say

“

I work in a bank

”

I am not implying that I am

working their now at this very minute but that it is

My Job

I work in a bank

everyday.

We can look at the meaning of

The Present Simple

pictorially.

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

<_______________________________NOW_______________________________>

I work in a bank

X = work in bank

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Making Questions with

The Present Simple

To make questions with the present simple we use the verb

for

Subject

Pronoun 1

and 3

person plural

and

does

for

person singular.

Therefore the statement

“I work in a bank”

becomes

the question

“Do you work in a bank?”

When answering a question we use the verb

for positive answers.

and

don’t (do not)

for negative answers.

Yes I do.

No I don’t

For the 3

person singular

(he/she/it/Jack)

we use

does

and

doesn’t.

Example

Does he work in a bank?

Yes he does

No he doesn’t.

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I Know

The Present Continuous

I am doing

Form

person singular

I am +

Verb + ing

I’m

person singular

he/she/it/Jack is +

Verb + ing

He’s/She’s/It’s/Jack’s

person and 3

person plural

we/you/they are +

Verb + ing

We’re/You’re/They’re

Present continuous

example chart

I am

reading a book.

I am

writing a letter.

Jack is

reading a book.

Jack is

writing a letter.

He is

reading a book.

He is

writing a letter.

She is

reading a book.

She is

writing a letter.

It is

running a program.

It is

We are

reading a book.

We are

writing a letter.

You are

reading a book.

You are

writing a letter.

They are

reading a book.

They are

writing a letter.

Note: Contractions are very often used in daily life I am > I’m We are > We’re etc.

Meaning

1. The present continuous

is used to describe an on going

activity that has recently started and will end shortly. i.e. It is a on going but
temporary state of affairs.

When I say

“I am reading a book”

I mean

a) I am reading the book.

Now

b) I started reading it recently.

C) I won’t be reading it shortly.

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I Know

The Past Simple

I did

Form

& 3

person

I/ he/she/it/Jack /we/you/they

Verb + ed

ed for regular verbs past participle form for irregular verbs varry

I Know

The Past Continuous

I was doing

Form

person singular

I /he/she/it/Jack was +

Verb + ing

person and 3

person plural

We/you/they were +

Verb + ing

I Know

The Future Simple

I will do

Form

& 3

person

I /he/she/it/Jack /we/you/they will +

Verb

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I know

The Future Continuous

I will be doing

Form

& 3

person

I /he/she/it/Jack will be +
/we/you/they

Verb + ing

I Know

The Present Perfect

I have done

Form

& 2

person and 3

person plural

I / you/we/they + have

Verb + ed

3rd person singular

he/she/it/Jack + has

Verb + ed

I Know

The Present Perfect Continuous

I have been doing

Form

& 2

person and 3

person plural

I / you/we/they + have been Verb + ing

person singular

he/she/it/Jack + has been

Verb + ing

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I Know

The Past Perfect

I will have done

Form

& 2

person and 3

person plural

I / you/we/they + will have
he /she/it/Jack

Verb + ed

I know

The Past Perfect Continuous

I will have been doing

Form

& 2

person and 3

person plural

I / you/we
/they/he /she/ + will have been
it/Jack

Verb + ed

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The I Know

Future Perfect

I know

The Future Perfect Continuous

I Know

The Passive and Active Constructions

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The 12 Tense at a glance

The Present Simple

I do

I am

I work in a bank.

He work

in a bank.

a teacher

The Past Simple

I did

I was

I worked in a bank.

He worked in a bank.

I was a teacher

He was a teacher.

The Future Simple

I will do
I will be

I will work in a bank.

He will work in a bank.

I will be a teacher.

He will be a teacher.

The Present Continuous

I am doing

I am working in a bank.

working in a bank.

The Past Continuous

I was doing

I was working in a bank.

He was working in a bank.

The Future Continuous

I will be doing

I will be working in a bank.

He will be working in a bank.

The Present Perfect

I have done

I have worked in a bank.

has

worked in a bank.

The Past Perfect

I had done

I had worked in a bank.

He had worked in a bank.

The Future Perfect

I will have done

I will have worked in a bank.

He will have worked in a bank.

The Present Perfect Continuous

I have been doing

I have been working in a bank.

He

has

been working in a bank.

The Past Perfect Continuous

I had been doing

I had been working in a bank.

He had been working in a
bank.

The Future Perfect Continuous

I will have been doing

I will have been working in a
bank

He will have been working in a
bank.

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Passive Constructions at a glance

The Present Simple

The Past Simple

The Future Simple

The Present Continuous

The Past Continuous

The Future Continuous

The Present Perfect

The Past Perfect

The Future Perfect

The Present Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous

The Future Perfect Continuous

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Simple

Continuous

Perfect

Perfect Continuous

Past

Active

Passive

I / he/ she / it/ + past participle

I was +
past participle
You were +

He was +
verb + ing
You / they were +

She was being +
past participle
We were being +

It had + past participle

I had been + past participle

They had been + verb + ing

I had been being + past participle

Present

Active

Passive

I/you/they + verb

He/she/it/ + verb (s/es)

I am +
He is past participle
We are +

I am
He is + verb + ing
They are

I am being
He is being + past participle
We are being

I have
+ past participle
He has

I have been
+ past participle
He has been

I/they have been + verb + ing

He/it has been + verb + ing

I have been being + past participle

Future

Active

Passive

I/you/ + will + verb

I/he/she + will be + past participle

I will be + verb + ing

I will be being + past participle

I will have + past participle

I will have been + past participle

I will have been + verb + ing

I will have been being + past participle

Infinitive
after
modal

Auxiliary

I/it/they/ +

+ verb

I/he/you +

be + past participle

You

+ verb + ing

be being + past participle

+ have + past participle

+ have been + past participle

+ have been + verb + ing

+ have been being + past participle

Past participle = Verb + ed for all regular verbs
Modal Auxiliary Verbs

(M)

are: shall / will / can / could / would / should / may / might / must / need (n’t) / ought (not) to /

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If & Conditional clauses

We use

when we want to talk about uncertain events, activities or things,

that

may or may not happen

might or might not be true

. In such sentences, the

represents a

condition

that must happen

first

hence the name

conditional

clauses.

All

conditional clauses

are separated into two halves

the main if clause or

condition

that must happen first and

the second clause or result

which happens

afterwards. Conditionals can understood in terms of

cause and

effect

where

If =

the cause.

If you drop that glass,

it will brake.

If you heat water to 100.c,

it will boil.

Conditional clauses can be used with special tenses to indicate how likely the

statement we are making is.

ZERO Conditional

General truths 100% certainty

FIRST conditional

Possible situation & likely outcomes

SECOND conditional

Hypothetical situations or improbable outcomes

THIRD conditional

Impossible situations and hypothetical outcomes

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Gerunds and participles

Gerund and participle are terms given to when we use –ing forms of the verb

Not

Verbs but as

adjectives, adverbs or nouns.

Gerund is the term given to the use of an –ing form of the verb used as a

noun

e.g.

The man was

laughing

. (laughing as a verb)

Laughing

is good for you. (laughing acting as a noun)

It is easy to check if an –ing is being used as a noun if you can replace it with a noun
then it’s a gerund.

Chocolate

is good for you. (Chocolate is a noun)

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Indirect and Reported Speech

In indirect speech we do not use speech marks and often we do not repeat word for
word what someone has said but rather retransmit or convey the mean of what they
have said. This can be very useful for example if I have just had a conversation and
someone asked what we were talking about I might very well find it very hard to repeat
word for word what was said. However I could quite easily explain what was talked
about and what was and wasn’t said in my own words.

Other examples were indirect or reported speech are common are in news reports. For
example a politician gives a long speech that covers many topics. However the news
report needs to sum this up in many less words e.g.

Tony Blair said that Gordon Brown was making a hash of the economy and wouldn’t it
be great if he was back in power.

He said that…………..

It has been reported……….

It is assumed that……………..

Back forming

Very often when we use reported speech we make a tense shift into a past tense e.g.
from the present simple to the past simple.