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Facial Reconstruction of a Wrapped
Egyptian Mummy Using MDCT

OBJECTIVE.

Facial reconstruction of mummies and corpses in general is important in

anthropological, medical, and forensic studies. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the
role of MDCT examination for 3D facial reconstruction and report the results of multidisci-
plinary work performed by radiologists, anthropologists, and forensic police in reconstructing
the possible physiognomy of an ancient Egyptian mummy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS.

Three-dimensional MDCT data were obtained from a

well-preserved, completely wrapped Egyptian mummy from the collection of the Egyptian Mu-
seum in Torino, Italy, which dated from the XXII or XXIII dynasty (945–715 BC). Data were
used as a model for the rapid prototyping stereolithographic technique, a method that allows the
creation of a 3D model with digital data using synthetic materials such as a resin or nylon.

RESULTS.

The physical creation of the face was accomplished with boosting techniques per-

formed by the progressive layering of plasticine on the nylon model according to the anthropo-
metric data, the conditions of the soft residual dehydrated tissues, and the most accepted scientific
and anthropological criteria. CT is the only noninvasive method for obtaining fundamental data
for 3D reconstructions of the skull and the body, especially with wrapped mummies.

CONCLUSION.

Our multidisciplinary cooperative study produced a model of the face of an

individual who lived nearly 3,000 years ago, which would not previously have been possible unless
we unwrapped, destroyed, and altered the conservation of the bandages and the mummy.

T studies in the scientific litera-
ture of ancient human mummies
have supplied anthropologists

with fundamental information. Facial recon-
structions of wrapped mummies using CT
data have been reported [1–3], although few
of them have used the helical technique and,
as far as we know, MDCT has never been
used before. Our group previously per-
formed a whole-body CT study of Egyptian
mummies using the MDCT technique [4].
Now we report the facial reconstruction of a
well-preserved, completely wrapped mummy
in cooperation with anthropologists and the
forensic police, and we describe the tech-
niques that we used to obtain the physiog-
nomy of the mummy.

Materials and Methods

Our previous MDCT study [4] of the whole bodies

of 13 completely wrapped Egyptian mummies from
the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Torino, dat-
ing from the III and IV dynasties (2650–2450 BC)

and from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (332 BC–
395 AD) obtained detailed acquisitions of the skulls
and highly accurate 3D reconstructions of the skulls
and dehydrated soft tissues.

Those data form the basis of our attempt to per-

form the facial reconstruction of the mummy (ac-
cession number, SUPPL 5226, CGT 13011) of
Harwa, an artisan who lived during the XXII or
XXIII dynasty (945–715 BC) that was found in
the Valley of the Queens by E. Schiaparelli during
the archaeological excavations that took place in
1903–1906 [5].

The items in the collection of the

Egyptian Museum are numbered using four in-
dexes: CAT designates the Catalogo Antico
Torino; CGT, Catalogo Generale Torino; PROVV,
Provvisorio; and SUPPL, Supplemento al CAT.

The procedures through which the final model

was achieved can be divided into several steps.

The first step was the acquisition of data using

an MDCT scanner (LightSpeed QX/i, GE Health-
care). Preliminary anteroposterior and lateral scout
images were obtained to optimize the field of
view. For the dedicated acquisition of the head,
these parameters were used: helical scanning, 0.8-
sec rotation time, 1.25-mm slice thickness, 7.5
mm/sec table speed, 0.7-mm reconstruction inter-

Federico Cesarani

1

Maria Cristina Martina

2

Renato Grilletto

3

Rosa Boano

3

Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri

4

Valter Capussotto

5

Andrea Giuliano

5

Maurizio Celia

5

Giovanni Gandini

2

Received September 8, 2003; accepted after revision
April 19, 2004.

1

Struttura Operativa Complessa di Radiodiagnostica,

Presidi Ospedalieri Riuniiti, Azienda Sanitaria Locale 19,
Asti, Regione Piemonte, Italy. Address correspondence to
F. Cesarani, Via San Felice 46/4, Pino Torinese 10025, Italy
([e-mail]).

2

Instituto di Radiologia Diagnostica ed Interventistica,

Università di Torino, Azienda Ospedaliera San Giovanni
Battista di Torino, Ospedale Molinette, Corso Bramante 84,
Torino 10126, Italy.

3

Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Laboratorio

di Antropologia Fisica, Università di Torino, via Accademia
Albertina 17, Torino 10123, Italy.

4

Soprintendenza al Museo delle Antichità Egizie di Torino,

via Accademia delle Scienze 6, Torino 10123, Italy.

5

Gabinetto Interregionale di Polizia Scientifica per il

Piemonte e la Valle d’Aosta di Torino, c.so Vinzaglio 10,
Torino 10121, Italy.

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Cesarani et al.

val, large field of view, 120 kV, and 140 mA.
Three hundred fifty-five images were obtained,
and the scanning time was 27.4 sec.

The second step consisted of postprocessing

performed with a Precision 530 workstation with
dual processors, Intel Xeon 1.7 GHz, and 2,048
MB of random access memory (Dell Computer)
with version 2.5 Vitrea software (Vital Images).
After the analysis of the external aspects of the
head, which was automatically reconstructed by
the software, the virtual removal of the bandages
was performed. In this case the bandages were sep-
arated from the superficial dried tissues of the
head, delimiting the layers of the wrappings from
the whole circumference of the head on the axial
scans and excluding them from the reconstruction.
Several attempts at virtual removal of the bandages
were performed to obtain the best delimitation of
the soft tissues (Fig. 1A). A 3D reconstruction of
the cranial bones was also obtained using preset al-
gorithms (Fig. 1B).

The third step consisted of generating the com-

puterized CT data to obtain two models made of
resin. The first was a highly precise reproduction
of the skull (Fig. 1C), and the second was the face of
the mummy with its residual soft tissues still present
under the bandages (Fig. 1D). For the skull model,
the bone structures were easily depicted from the
soft tissues according to their density, but for the sec-
ond model an accurate delimitation of the soft tis-
sues of the face had to be performed on each CT
slice. This was achieved by cooperation between the
radiologist and the computer-assisted design techni-
cian to exclude the bandages and debris from the re-
construction. We used a dedicated software system
for interfacing medical scanner information from
CT or MRI with rapid prototyping (Mimics 7 soft-
ware, Materialize). These data were then transferred
to a Vanguard selective laser sintering system (3D
Systems Italia)

for the reproduction of the resin

model. The selective laser sintering system is a de-
vice that produces a model polymerizing thin layers
of plastic material using the computer-assisted de-
sign file of an object. We used Polyamide powders

(Duraform). The reconstruction was performed in
steps of 0.1 mm, working from the neck to the ver-
tex. After the model cooled, excess powders were re-
moved and a computerized system checked the
resulting model against the mathematic model to de-
tect possible inaccuracies.

The final facial reconstruction was then per-

formed on the skull cast by the combined work of
the anthropologist and the forensic artist, using the
Manchester protocol reconstruction method [6] and
the information given by the residual soft tissues. In
particular, pegs were positioned at marked points on
the resin model of the skull according to the protocol
parameters to determine the correct thickness of the
soft tissues. The thickness of the pegs was estab-
lished by the anthropologist according to the marks
of muscle insertions on the skull model. Among the
pegs, strips of plasticine were laid and the empty
spaces were filled with modeling material (Fig. 1E).
The model with the residual soft tissues gave impor-
tant information regarding the morphology of the
nose, the mouth, and the ears.

We used CT data from the whole bodies previ-

ously studied [4] to reconstruct parameters for an
average individual. We decided not to add beard,
mustache, hair, or makeup to limit artistic inter-
pretation and give precedence instead to the sci-
entific data.

Recently, a plaster cast was made to preserve

the model and allow its exhibition.

Results

The embalming procedures used to pre-

serve the body were identified from the eval-
uation of axial scans and multiplanar
reconstructions. The absence of brain mate-
rial, the persistence of only thin meningeal
sheets, and the interruption of the ethmoidal
cells revealed that the brain was removed
through the nasal cavity. The teeth are in
poor condition, and no other evidence of dis-
ease can be seen.

The anthropological indexes measured on

the axial and multiplanar reconstructions are
reported in Table 1.

The facial reconstruction allowed the

identification of a man approximately 45
years old at the time of death. We emphasize
that the reconstruction did not allow estab-
lishing the fatty layers of the face. The mus-
cle insertions are clearly visible on the skull
bones reconstructed according to the CT data
and helped the forensic artist and anthropol-
ogist to infer the possible thickness of the
muscles, but fat does not leave signs on the
skull. Because of this reason, dehydration,
and the embalming procedures, we do not
know how fatty the face was.

The reconstruction parameters estab-

lished for an average individual were attrib-
uted to the face of Harwa according to the
CT data of the whole bodies previously stud-
ied [4] and the cranial indexes. The results
are also strengthened by the studies of
Chantre [7], Thomson and Randall-Maciver
[8], and Marro [9], according to which a
gradual increase of the cephalic index of an-
cient Egyptians toward mesocephaly oc-
curred in the Greek and Roman periods.

Details of the soft tissues were reproduced

with high accuracy. Also, a small lesion was
reproduced on the superficial surface of the
left temporal area. Already visible on the ax-
ial scans as a small isodense homogeneous
lesion without calcifications, it is probably a
nevus. The reconstructions show it clearly
(Fig. 1F), along with other details of the face.

Discussion

Facial reconstruction from human remains

is fundamental in forensic science for identi-

Note.—The mummy of Harwa is in the Egyptian Museum, Torino, Italy; accession number SUPPL 5226, CGT 13011). Table parameters are according to Bass [15].

a

Anthropological indexes are measured on axial and multiplanar reconstructions.

TABLE 1

Mummy of Harwa Cranial Chronology During XXII and XXIII Dynasties (945–715 BC)

Index

a

Description

Values

Features

8/1

Maximum cranial breadth

×

100 / maximum cranial length = cranial index

76.75

Mesocephalic

17/1

Cranial height

×

100 / maximum cranial length = cranial length–height index

70.85

Medium-height skull; orthocephalic

17/8

Cranial height

×

100 / maximum cranial breadth = cranial breadth–height index

92.30

Medium-height, medium-large skull;

metriocephalic

9/10

Minimum frontal breadth

×

100 / maximum frontal breadth

75.20

Convex forehead

9/8

Minimal frontal breadth

×

100 / maximum cranial breadth = frontoparietal index

63.63

Narrow forehead; stenometopic

47/45

Total facial height

×

100 / bizygomatic breadth = total facial index

92.46

Slender or narrow face; leptoprosopic

48/45

Upper facial height

×

100 / bizygomatic breadth = upper facial index

61.88

Very slender or narrow face; hyperleptenic

52/51

Orbital height

×

100 / orbital breadth = orbital index

98.28

Narrow orbits; hypsiconchic

54/55

Nasal breadth

×

100 / nasal height = nasal index

53.99

Wide-nosed; platyrrhinic

MDCT of a Wrapped Egyptian Mummy

AJR:183, September 2004

757

fying bodies, but it has also been of interest
in archaeology and paleoanthropology. It is
one of the ways in which archaeologists
seek to characterize the individuals of cer-
tain societies and has the potential for supple-

menting data collected by traditional physical
and forensic anthropology.

Three main approaches for facial recon-

struction are known [6]. The Russian method
as developed by Gerasimov involves building

the facial anatomy over the skull. The Ameri-
can method relies almost entirely on the use of
average soft-tissue measurements at specific
anatomic points and building the clay up to the
point at which the measurements are matched.

A

B

C

D

E

F

Fig. 1.—Mummy of Harwa from Egyptian Museum, Torino, Italy (accession number SUPPL 5226, CGT 13011), dating from XXII or XXIII dynasty, 945–715 BC. Photographs
show reconstruction process and results.
A, First 3D reconstruction of face of mummy includes residual soft tissues after virtual removal of bandages.
B, Three-dimensional skull reconstruction used preset algorithms.
C, Resin model of skull was obtained using selective laser sintering system.
D, Resin model of face with its residual dehydrated soft tissues was obtained by accurately separating tissues from bandages and debris using computer-assisted system.
Hard reconstruction was then performed using selective laser sintering system.
E, Facial reconstruction was performed according to Manchester protocol method. Pegs are positioned at marked points on resin model of skull (anatomic right side). On
left side of model, strips of plasticine are laid and empty spaces are filled with modeling material to reproduce final aspect of soft tissues.
F, Final model shows facial reconstruction according to funerary mask style. Note accurate reproduction of details, such as left temporal skin lesion.

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Cesarani et al.

The third, known as the Manchester method,
which is the one we followed, uses soft-tissue
measurements and careful rebuilding of the
anatomic structures.

Several solid replica facial reconstructions of

mummies from CT data have been reported in
the literature. The first example was performed
by the Japanese archaeologist Sakuji Yoshimura
[1], who reconstructed the face of the Egyptian
mummy Crisalis in 1983. With the aid of a
computer program of the Institute of Forensic
Anthropology in Kyoto, starting from 49 CT
axial slices, the researchers virtually unwrapped
the head and reconstructed the face of a young
woman who lived in Egypt at the time of Tut-
mosis III (XVIII dynasty, 1479–1425 BC). It is
now shown with heavy makeup and a hairstyle.

In 1998, the body of Sensaos, who died in

109 BC, was scanned with a Tomoscan Ex-
pander (Philips) in Holland [2]. In this case,
the number of slices used for the head was
190 and for the rest of the body was 558.
Data were elaborated with software and a
procedure known as multijet modeling that
produced the face of the young Egyptian
woman in 36 hr [5]. Richard Neave [3] re-
constructed her face with the assistance of a
makeup artist. Now the face shows thick lips,
quite a large nose, and small ears appropriate
to the typical somatic type of the Nubian
population to which she belonged.

Later, the same authors [3] compared the re-

sults of the computer facial reconstruction of
four Egyptian mummies from Fayum with
their corresponding portraits. They found good
correspondence between the reconstructions
and the portraits in all instances except one.

An article on computer-aided facial recon-

struction with dedicated software of an un-
wrapped mummified Egyptian head of
uncertain period was recently presented by
Attardi et al. [10]. According to the authors,
this system provides faster execution time and
a more scientific approach than traditional fa-
cial reconstruction because no manual skill is
required and no artistic freedom is given.

It becomes clear on reviewing the litera-

ture that the continuous development of ac-
quisition and reconstruction techniques has
progressively improved the accuracy of re-
sults. The accuracy of MDCT, with the ac-
quisition of thin overlapping slices and 3D
reconstructions as a method that faithfully
reproduces human anatomy, has been widely
reported in the literature [11–13].

The average depths of facial tissues at a

number of sites on the skull are well known,
and these are used as the basis for recon-
struction. On the other hand, Prag and Neave
[6] report that large areas of the face have no
underlying bone structure (e.g., the eyes, the
mouth, the shape of the nose) that can be
used to predict facial shape, and therefore
much of the final reconstruction is guess-
work. In our case, data on soft dehydrated
tissues from the 3D reconstructions with the
workstation gave us fundamental informa-
tion about the morphology of the nose, of the
ears, and partially of the lips, which are fre-
quently influenced by subjectivity and are
difficult to reconstruct accurately from cra-
nial information only.

In particular, we emphasize the role played

by virtual unwrapping. Attardi et al. [10] with
an Egyptian mummy and zur Nedden et al.
[14] with the Ice Man, using duplication of
the skull by means of stereolithography,
started from unwrapped mummies. In our
case, we could not follow the method pro-
posed by Attardi et al. for constructing a hy-
brid model produced from the hard tissues of
the mummy and the soft tissues of the head
because the original head was completely
covered by wrappings. Only the virtual re-
moval of the bandages allowed the identifi-
cation of the soft tissues so that the
reconstruction of the face and soft residual
tissues could be used as reference.

We avoided subjective interpretations by

giving no hair, beard, or additional color to
the skin.

Multidisciplinary cooperation already re-

ported by other authors [10, 14] was essential
during the different phases of reconstruction.
Although we followed a strict scientific pro-
tocol, variability in the final results can be
admitted because of some subjective inter-
pretation of the forensic artist.

Facial reconstruction of mummies and

corpses is important in anthropological,
medical and forensic studies. CT is the only
noninvasive method to obtain fundamental
data for 3D reconstructions of the head and
body, especially of wrapped mummies. Our
multidisciplinary study produced a model of
the face of a man who lived nearly 3,000
years ago, which we would otherwise have
never seen unless we unwrapped, altered,
and destroyed the integrity of the bandages
and the mummy.

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