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Anatomia PC.

Wydanie X

Autor: Piotr Metzger

ISBN: 83-246-0093-0

Format: B5, stron: oko³o 1100

oprawa twarda

Zawiera DVD

Kompendium wiedzy o architekturze komputerów PC

• Procesory

• Zarz¹dzanie pamiêci¹

• Magistrale i z³¹cza

• Obs³uga urz¹dzeñ zewnêtrznych

Ka¿dy serwisant, programista i projektant urz¹dzeñ wspó³pracuj¹cych z komputerami musi znaæ

architekturê wspó³czesnych komputerów PC. Wiedza na ten temat mo¿e siê przydaæ tak¿e zwyk³emu

u¿ytkownikowi komputera, który chcia³by samodzielnie znaleŸæ przyczyny nieprawid³owego dzia³ania

sprzêtu, oraz wszystkim osobom zainteresowanym dzia³aniem pecetów. Szczegó³owe informacje

o komponentach komputera s¹ niestety trudno dostêpne i rozproszone w wielu dokumentach,

specyfikacjach i schematach.
Ksi¹¿ka "Anatomia PC. Wydanie X" to kompletne opracowanie, zawieraj¹ce wyczerpuj¹ce informacje

o architekturze komputerów PC i ich komponentów. Dziesi¹te ju¿ wydanie tej klasycznej i ciesz¹cej siê

ogromn¹ popularnoœci¹ pozycji jest, podobnie jak poprzednie wydania, prawdziwym kompendium wiedzy

o wspó³czesnych pecetach, opisuj¹cym zarówno rozwi¹zania klasyczne, jak i nowoœci z ostatnich

miesiêcy. Dziêki niej poradzisz sobie z wszystkimi problemami sprzêtowymi, zdiagnozujesz usterki

i zaprojektujesz urz¹dzenia poprawnie wspó³pracuj¹ce z komputerem. Ksi¹¿ka opisuje nastêpuj¹ce

zagadnienia:

• mikroprocesory rodziny x86 wraz z najnowszymi Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition, koprocesory

i rozszerzenia, takie jak MMX, 3DNow, SSE, SSE2 i HT,

• procesory dwurdzeniowe,

• architektury komputerów PC XT, AT, 386, 486 i Pentium, systemów jedno-

i wieloprocesorowych oraz komputerów przenoœnych,

• uk³ady pamiêciowe stosowane w komputerach PC -- SIMM, DRAM, SDRAM, DDR, DDR2

oraz zasady ich obs³ugi,

• chipsety Intel, VIA, SiS, i865/875, obs³uga przerwañ, magistrala PCI i kana³ DMA, mostkowanie

PCI-E -- AGP,

• obs³uga stacji dyskietek i dysków twardych -- organizacja i odczyt danych, praca kontrolera,

macierze RAID,

• z³¹cza ATA, SCSI i FireWire,

• karty grafiki, przetwarzanie obrazu, kompresja MPEG, generowanie grafiki 3D i magistrala AGP,

• najnowsze uk³ady graficzne,

• obs³uga klawiatury,

• z³¹cza szeregowe, równoleg³e, USB i IrDA,

• system oszczêdzania energii,

• noœniki optyczne,

• karty dŸwiêkowe,

• sieci i technologia BlueTooth,

• zasilacze awaryjne,

• BIOS.

Ponadto w ksi¹¿ce znajdziesz informacje o diagnozowaniu usterek komputera za pomoc¹ Linuksa, opisy

mikroprocesorów firm Intel, AMD i Cyrix, w tym tak¿e najnowszych jednostek 64-bitowych, oraz adresy

witryn internetowych producentów sprzêtu i oprogramowania diagnostycznego.

Rozdział 1. Mikroprocesor ...................................................................................... 19

Przetwarzanie rozkazów ..........................................................................................................21

RISC i CISC ......................................................................................................................21
Przetwarzanie potokowe ....................................................................................................22
Techniki przyspieszania .....................................................................................................25

Dostęp do pamięci ....................................................................................................................32

Adresowanie ......................................................................................................................34
Stronicowanie ....................................................................................................................35

Pamięci podręczne ...................................................................................................................37

Topologie ...........................................................................................................................39
Organizacja pamięci podręcznej ........................................................................................41
Strategie .............................................................................................................................42
Pamięć podręczna procesora 80386 ...................................................................................43

Obsługa przestrzeni adresowej I/O ..........................................................................................47

Procesor 8086 ....................................................................................................................48
Procesory 80386 i 80486 ...................................................................................................48
Pentium ..............................................................................................................................49

Funkcje kontrolne i sterujące ...................................................................................................49

BIST ...................................................................................................................................49
Kontrola TLB .....................................................................................................................50
Kontrola pamięci podręcznej .............................................................................................50
Przejście w stan wysokiej impedancji ...............................................................................50
JTAG ..................................................................................................................................50

Częstotliwość taktowania .........................................................................................................52
Zasilanie ...................................................................................................................................54
Jak rozpoznać typ procesora? ..................................................................................................56

Czy procesor jest zgodny z układem 80286 lub lepszym?  ................................................57
Procesor 8086/88 czy 80186/88? .......................................................................................57
Procesor 80286  ..................................................................................................................58
Procesor 80386  ..................................................................................................................58
Procesor 486 czy Pentium? ................................................................................................58

Koprocesory .............................................................................................................................58

Koprocesor 8087 ................................................................................................................61
Koprocesor 80287 ..............................................................................................................62
Koprocesor 80387 ..............................................................................................................62
Koprocesor i487SX ...........................................................................................................63

4 Anatomia

Rozszerzenia ............................................................................................................................63

MMX .................................................................................................................................63
3DNow! .............................................................................................................................76
SSE ....................................................................................................................................76
SSE2 ..................................................................................................................................80
SSE3 ..................................................................................................................................82
Hyper-Threading (HT) .......................................................................................................84

Przetwarzanie 64-bitowe ..........................................................................................................89

Metoda firmy Intel: Itanium ..............................................................................................89
Metoda firmy AMD: Opteron ............................................................................................92
Przyszłość przetwarzania 64-bitowego ..............................................................................94

Rozdział 2. Architektury komputerów PC ................................................................ 97

Model PC/XT ...........................................................................................................................97

Procesor 8086  ....................................................................................................................97
Procesor 8088  ..................................................................................................................100
Dostęp do pamięci i przestrzeni wejścia-wyjścia  ............................................................101
Kontroler 8288 .................................................................................................................102
Magistrala ISA 8-bitowa ..................................................................................................107

Model AT ...............................................................................................................................109

Procesor 80286 ................................................................................................................111
Magistrala ISA 16-bitowa ................................................................................................113

Komputery z procesorami 386, 486 i Pentium ......................................................................115

EISA ................................................................................................................................117
MCA ................................................................................................................................118
VESA ...............................................................................................................................120
PCI, PCI-X i PCI Express ................................................................................................123

Architektury systemów wieloprocesorowych ............................................................................123

Architektura MPP ............................................................................................................124
Architektura UMA ...........................................................................................................125
Architektura NUMA ........................................................................................................128
Specyfikacja MP (Intel) ...................................................................................................130
Zastosowania praktyczne .................................................................................................137

Architektura komputerów przenośnych .................................................................................145

Złącze PCMCIA ..............................................................................................................145

Rozdział 3. Układy pamięciowe PC ....................................................................... 147

Pamięci dynamiczne ..............................................................................................................148

Tryb konwencjonalny (Page Mode) ................................................................................149
FPM (Fast Page Mode) ....................................................................................................149
EDO (Extended Data Out) ...............................................................................................152
BEDO (Burst EDO) .........................................................................................................152
Porównanie ......................................................................................................................154
SDRAM ...........................................................................................................................154

Moduły pamięciowe ...............................................................................................................163

Moduły SIMM-30 (SIP) ..................................................................................................164
Moduły SIMM PS/2 ........................................................................................................166
Moduły DIMM 168-stykowe ...........................................................................................170

Odświeżanie ...........................................................................................................................184

RAS Only .........................................................................................................................186
CBR (CAS before RAS) ..................................................................................................186
Hidden ..............................................................................................................................188

Wykrywanie błędów i ich korekcja .......................................................................................189

Błędy powtarzalne (HE) ..................................................................................................189
Błędy sporadyczne (SE) ..................................................................................................189

Spis treści

Kontrola parzystości ........................................................................................................190
Kontrola ECC ..................................................................................................................191

Rozszerzenia standardu magistrali PC-66 ..............................................................................192

Parametry modułów .........................................................................................................194
Pamięć konfiguracyjna (SPD) .........................................................................................195
Moduły buforowane .........................................................................................................198

DDR SDRAM ........................................................................................................................201

Systemy dwukanałowe ....................................................................................................209
DDR2 SDRAM ................................................................................................................210
Moduły DIMM DDR2 .....................................................................................................211

RDRAM .................................................................................................................................217
VC-SDRAM ..........................................................................................................................224
HSDRAM ..............................................................................................................................226
Porównanie parametrów pamięci ...........................................................................................227

LVTTL .............................................................................................................................228
SSTL_2 ............................................................................................................................229
SSTL_18 ..........................................................................................................................229
RSL ..................................................................................................................................229

Identyfikacja producentów chipów pamięciowych ................................................................230

Rozdział 4. Układy otoczenia procesora (chipset) .................................................. 233

Zakres funkcji ........................................................................................................................233

Magistrala FSB  ................................................................................................................235
Obsługa pamięci operacyjnej i magistrali pamięciowej  ..................................................239
Obsługa pamięci podręcznej (Cache)  ..............................................................................241
Zakres pokrywany przez pamięć podręczną ....................................................................243

Układy obsługi podstawki typu Socket 7 ...............................................................................246
Układy współpracujące z magistralą GTL+ i AGTL+ ..........................................................248
Układy do obsługi procesorów AMD ....................................................................................259

Rodzina K7 ......................................................................................................................259
Rodzina Hammer .............................................................................................................264

Układy ze zintegrowaną kartą graficzną ................................................................................264
Wewnętrzne magistrale międzyukładowe .............................................................................273

PCI ...................................................................................................................................273
Hub-Interface, V-Link i MuTIOL ...................................................................................274
RapidIO ............................................................................................................................274
HyperTransport (LDT) ....................................................................................................279

Rozdział 5. Magistrala PCI ................................................................................... 283

Gniazda magistrali PCI  ..........................................................................................................293
Obsługa przerwań  ..................................................................................................................295
Pamięć konfiguracyjna urządzeń PCI  ....................................................................................297

Identyfikator producenta (Vendor ID) .............................................................................297
Identyfikator urządzenia (Device ID)  ..............................................................................297
Rejestr poleceń (Command)  ............................................................................................298
Rejestr stanu (Status)  .......................................................................................................299
Numer wersji urządzenia (Revision ID)  ..........................................................................301
Kod klasy urządzenia (Class Code)  .................................................................................301
Rozmiar linii pamięci podręcznej (Cache Line Size)  ......................................................301
Minimalny czas transmisji (Latency Timer) ....................................................................301
Typ nagłówka (Header Type)  ..........................................................................................304
BIST (Build-in Self-test)  .................................................................................................305
Adres bazowy (Base Address Registers) .........................................................................305
Wskaźnik CardBus CIS (CardBus CIS Pointer) ..............................................................306

6 Anatomia

Dodatkowy identyfikator producenta (Subsystem Vendor ID)

i dodatkowy identyfikator urządzenia (Subsystem ID) .............................................307

Adres bazowy rozszerzenia ROM (Expansion ROM Base Address) ..............................307
Wskaźnik do listy możliwości (Capabilities Pointer) ......................................................308
Linia IRQ (Interrupt Line)  ...............................................................................................308
Linia INT (Interrupt Pin)  .................................................................................................308
Długość transmisji (Min_Gnt)  .........................................................................................309
Częstość (Max_Lat) .........................................................................................................309

Mechanizmy dostępu do pamięci konfiguracyjnej ................................................................309

Pierwszy mechanizm dostępu do pamięci konfiguracyjnej .............................................310
Drugi mechanizm dostępu do pamięci konfiguracyjnej ..................................................310
PCI BIOS .........................................................................................................................311

Autokonfiguracja urządzeń PCI .............................................................................................311
Rozwój PCI i inne magistrale ................................................................................................312

PCI-32/66 MHz i PCI-64 .................................................................................................313
PCI-X ...............................................................................................................................313
PCI-Express .....................................................................................................................317

Rozdział 6. Kanał DMA ......................................................................................... 325

Układ scalony 8237A .............................................................................................................326
Tryby pracy kontrolera DMA ................................................................................................328

Tryb spoczynkowy „I” (Idle) ...........................................................................................328
Tryb „S” (Single)  .............................................................................................................329
Tryb „B” (Block)  .............................................................................................................329
Tryb „D” (Demand)  .........................................................................................................329
Tryb „C” (Cascade)  .........................................................................................................329
Tryb „V” (Verify)  ............................................................................................................329

Kaskadowe łączenie układów 8237A  ....................................................................................330
Programowanie kontrolerów DMA  .......................................................................................330
Adresy portów kontrolerów DMA w komputerze IBM PC/XT  ............................................331

„Sztuczne” porty komputera PC/XT ...............................................................................332

Adresy portów kontrolerów DMA w komputerze IBM PC/AT ............................................332

„Sztuczne” porty komputera PC/AT ...............................................................................333

Budowa rejestrów wewnętrznych ..........................................................................................334

Rejestr żądań (port 009h w PC/XT, 009h i 0D2h w PC/AT)  ..........................................334
Rejestr stanu (port 008h w PC/XT, 008h i 0D0h w PC/AT)  ...........................................334
Rejestr rozkazów (port 008h w PC/XT, 008h i 0D0h w PC/AT)  ....................................334
Rejestr maski kanału (port 00Ah w PC/XT, 00Ah i 0D4h w PC/AT)  ............................335
Rejestr maskujący (port 00Fh w PC/XT, 00Fh i 0DEh w PC/AT)  .................................335
Rejestr trybu (00Bh w PC/XT, 00Bh i 0D6h w PC/AT):  ................................................336

Przebieg transmisji .................................................................................................................337

Komputery IBM PC i IBM PC/XT ..................................................................................337
Komputer IBM PC/AT ....................................................................................................338

Układ odświeżania pamięci ...................................................................................................340
DMA a współczesne magistrale rozszerzające ......................................................................341

Rozdział 7. System obsługi przerwań sprzętowych ................................................. 343

Układ scalony 8259A (PIC) ...................................................................................................344
Cykl przyjęcia zgłoszenia ......................................................................................................346
Kaskadowe łączenie kontrolerów przerwań ..........................................................................347

Fazy obsługi przerwań pochodzących od układu Slave ..................................................349

Programowanie kontrolera przerwań .....................................................................................349

Inicjowanie pracy układu .................................................................................................350

Polling ....................................................................................................................................354
Przerwanie niemaskowalne (NMI) ........................................................................................354

Spis treści

Obsługa przerwań z magistral ISA, PCI i AGP .....................................................................355
Kontroler APIC ......................................................................................................................358

Strona sprzętowa ..............................................................................................................360
Obsługa APIC przez OS ..................................................................................................363

Rozdział 8. Obsługa stacji dyskietek ..................................................................... 367

Fizyczna organizacja danych na dyskietce ............................................................................369
Programowanie operacji dyskowych .....................................................................................372

Programowanie operacji dyskowych z poziomu systemu MS-DOS  ...............................372
Przerwanie 25h  ................................................................................................................373
Przerwanie 26h  ................................................................................................................374
Przerwanie 21h  ................................................................................................................374
Obsługa dysków za pomocą funkcji BIOS-u ...................................................................375
Bezpośredni dostęp do kontrolera napędu dysków elastycznych ....................................384

Cykl rozkazowy kontrolera ....................................................................................................387

Faza przygotowawcza ......................................................................................................387
Faza przekazywania rozkazu  ...........................................................................................387
Budowa przykładowego rozkazu — rozkaz RS (Read Sector)  .......................................388
Alternatywne metody transmisji danych  .........................................................................393

Uwzględnianie mechanicznych własności napędu ................................................................394
Zabezpieczanie danych — kod CRC .....................................................................................396

Rozdział 9. Obsługa dysku twardego ..................................................................... 399

Budowa kontrolera .................................................................................................................399
Systemy kodowania MFM i RLL ..........................................................................................400
Fizyczna organizacja danych i formatowanie ........................................................................402

Formatowanie wysokiego poziomu .................................................................................403
Formatowanie niskiego poziomu .....................................................................................404

Wykrywanie i korekcja błędów .............................................................................................406
Standard AT-BUS ..................................................................................................................409

Wstęp ...............................................................................................................................410
Złącze fizyczne  ................................................................................................................412
Dostęp CPU do dysku AT-BUS  ......................................................................................414
Cykl programowania kontrolera  ......................................................................................421

Rozszerzenia standardu pierwotnego .....................................................................................425
Wzrost pojemności dysków ...................................................................................................428

Ograniczenia wnoszone przez BIOS ...............................................................................429
Ograniczenia wnoszone przez systemy operacyjne .........................................................439
Obsługa dużych dysków ..................................................................................................442

Podnoszenie pasma przepustowego magistrali ......................................................................443

Tryby PIO  ........................................................................................................................444
Tryby DMA  .....................................................................................................................446
Tryb Ultra DMA/33 .........................................................................................................447
Tryb Ultra DMA/66 .........................................................................................................450
Tryby Ultra ATA/100 i Ultra ATA/133  ..........................................................................452

Blok informacyjny .................................................................................................................453

Realizacja rozkazu Identify Device .................................................................................453

Lista rozkazów .......................................................................................................................459
Funkcje oszczędnościowe ......................................................................................................460

System PM .......................................................................................................................460
System APM ....................................................................................................................462

Funkcje akustyczne ................................................................................................................463

Dostęp do funkcji AAM ..................................................................................................463

8 Anatomia

Wykorzystanie powierzchni dyskowej ..................................................................................465

Proces ładowania systemu operacyjnego .........................................................................465
MBR i PT .........................................................................................................................466
System danych i FSBR  ....................................................................................................467
Specyfika wybranych systemów operacyjnych  ...............................................................469
Przypisywanie oznaczeń literowych ................................................................................474
Programy BM  ..................................................................................................................475

Macierze dyskowe ..................................................................................................................476

Poziomy RAID  ................................................................................................................477
Kontrolery RAID  .............................................................................................................480
Rozwiązania programowe z poziomu systemu operacyjnego  .........................................481
Tryby macierzowe zestawów układów sterujących firmy Intel  ......................................482

SMART ..................................................................................................................................483

Struktura systemu ............................................................................................................483
Aplikacje współpracujące ze SMART .............................................................................486

Wielowątkowy dostęp przez Serial ATA ...............................................................................486

Zarządzanie kolejką  .........................................................................................................487
Rozpędzanie dysku  ..........................................................................................................488
Optymalizacja ruchu głowicy  ..........................................................................................488
Opóźnienie w ruchu obrotowym  .....................................................................................489
Korzyści i wspomaganie Native Command Queuing ......................................................489
Jak aplikacje mogą korzystać z kolejkowania  .................................................................490

Pamięci USB ..........................................................................................................................492

Interfejs ............................................................................................................................492
Cechy pamięci USB .........................................................................................................493
Wydajność .......................................................................................................................494

Rozdział 10. Magistrala szeregowa ATA ................................................................. 495

Specyfikacja ...........................................................................................................................497
Sterowanie ..............................................................................................................................497
Okablowanie ..........................................................................................................................498
Urządzenia .............................................................................................................................499
Protokół i transmisja  ..............................................................................................................500
Serial ATA II  .........................................................................................................................506
Kolejkowanie rozkazów .........................................................................................................506
Powielacze portów  .................................................................................................................507
Backplane ...............................................................................................................................508

Rozdział 11. Standard SCSI .................................................................................... 513

Realizacja magistrali ..............................................................................................................516
Organizacja protokołu ............................................................................................................519

Fazy pracy magistrali .......................................................................................................520
Transfer danych w fazach informacyjnych ......................................................................533
Sytuacje wyjątkowe  .........................................................................................................540
Rozkazy systemowe .........................................................................................................544
Informacja statusowa  .......................................................................................................548
Komunikaty (Messages)  ..................................................................................................549
System wskaźników .........................................................................................................554
Przykładowa wymiana danych  ........................................................................................556

SCSI w komputerach PC ........................................................................................................560

Host-Adapter ....................................................................................................................561
Okablowanie ....................................................................................................................565
Terminatory .....................................................................................................................567
Rozszerzenia SCSI ...........................................................................................................569

Spis treści

Rozdział 12. Złącze 1394 (Fire Wire) ..................................................................... 583

Ogólne założenia standardów 1394-1995 i 1394a-2000 ........................................................584

Tryby i prędkość transmisji .............................................................................................584
Topologia .........................................................................................................................585
Okablowanie ....................................................................................................................585
Gwarantowane pasmo transmisyjne ................................................................................587

Rozszerzenia 1394b ...............................................................................................................587

Klasy prędkości ...............................................................................................................588
Okablowanie ....................................................................................................................588
Protokół ............................................................................................................................591

Rozdział 13. Karty graficzne ................................................................................... 593

Przegląd kart graficznych .......................................................................................................593
Omówienie kart graficznych EGA, VGA i SVGA ................................................................597

Tryby tekstowe  ................................................................................................................600
Tryby graficzne ................................................................................................................601
Rozdzielczość obrazu  ......................................................................................................601
Tryby zapisu i odczytu pamięci obrazu  ...........................................................................602
Schemat działania karty graficznej  ..................................................................................603

Standard VESA ......................................................................................................................605
Pamięć lokalna akceleratora ...................................................................................................605

Frame Buffer ....................................................................................................................606
Bufor Z/W ........................................................................................................................607
Pamięć tekstur ..................................................................................................................609
Rozmiar pamięci i organizacja ........................................................................................610
Rodzaje pamięci kart graficznych ...................................................................................613

RAMDAC ..............................................................................................................................617
Przegląd nowych procesorów graficznych ............................................................................620
Dopasowanie monitora do karty ............................................................................................624

Parametry karty ................................................................................................................624
Jakość monitora ...............................................................................................................626
Kanał informacyjny VESA DDC ....................................................................................628

Złącza cyfrowe .......................................................................................................................629

TMDS ..............................................................................................................................629
P&D (EVC) .....................................................................................................................631
DFP ..................................................................................................................................631
DVI ..................................................................................................................................632

Rozdział 14. Przetwarzanie obrazów wideo ............................................................. 635

Formaty MPEG ......................................................................................................................638

MPEG-1 ...........................................................................................................................638
MPEG-2 ...........................................................................................................................639
MPEG-4 ...........................................................................................................................640

Format DivX ..........................................................................................................................641

Rozdzielczość ..................................................................................................................641
Bitrate w filmach DivX  ...................................................................................................642
Smart Bitrate Control i Constant Bitrate Control  ............................................................642
Profile kompresji  .............................................................................................................643

Następca formatu DivX .........................................................................................................643
Rozwiązania programowe na platformie PC .........................................................................645

Kodery .............................................................................................................................646
Odtwarzacze ....................................................................................................................648

Wspomaganie sprzętowe ........................................................................................................650
Interfejs programowy .............................................................................................................652

10 Anatomia

Rozdział 15. Grafika 3D ......................................................................................... 655

Schemat przetwarzania obiektów 3D .....................................................................................656
API .........................................................................................................................................658
Geometry Engine ...................................................................................................................660

Tłumaczenie opisu środowiska ........................................................................................660
Oświetlenie i tekstura  ......................................................................................................660
Przekształcenia geometryczne  .........................................................................................661
Strefa widoczności ...........................................................................................................661
Przekazanie parametrów do jednostki rasteryzującej  ......................................................662

Rendering Engine ...................................................................................................................662

Teksturowanie ..................................................................................................................665
Korekcja perspektywy .....................................................................................................666
Nakładanie mapy .............................................................................................................667
Mieszanie kolorów ...........................................................................................................672
Efekty specjalne ...............................................................................................................673

Podział mocy obliczeniowej ..................................................................................................674

Rozdział 16. Magistrala AGP .................................................................................. 677

Architektura komputera z magistralą AGP ............................................................................677
Sygnały magistrali AGP .........................................................................................................681

Szyna adresów i danych ...................................................................................................683
Sygnały PCI  .....................................................................................................................684
Sygnały kontroli przepływu .............................................................................................685
Sygnały obsługi żądań AGP  ............................................................................................685
Linie statusowe  ................................................................................................................685
Sygnały kluczujące  ..........................................................................................................686
Sygnały USB  ...................................................................................................................686
System zarządzania zużyciem energii  .............................................................................686
Sygnały specjalne  ............................................................................................................687
Linie zasilające  ................................................................................................................687

AGP w teorii ..........................................................................................................................687

Kolejkowanie ...................................................................................................................688
Magistrala SBA ...............................................................................................................690
GART ..............................................................................................................................691
DIME ...............................................................................................................................692

AGP w praktyce .....................................................................................................................694

Wymagania sprzętowe i programowe .............................................................................694
Kontrola działania ............................................................................................................695

AGP PRO ...............................................................................................................................698
AGP 3.0 ..................................................................................................................................701

Pasmo przepustowe  .........................................................................................................701
Poziomy napięć ................................................................................................................701
Nowe sygnały i przedefiniowania  ...................................................................................702
Sygnały zegarowe  ............................................................................................................703
Transakcje ........................................................................................................................704
Pobór prądu ......................................................................................................................704
Zgodność w dół ................................................................................................................704
Implementacja w chipsetach ............................................................................................705
Przyszłość standardu AGP ...............................................................................................705

Rozdział 17. System odmierzania czasu .................................................................. 707

Układ 8253/8254 ....................................................................................................................707

Tryb 0 ...............................................................................................................................709
Tryb 1 ...............................................................................................................................709
Tryb 2 ...............................................................................................................................710

Spis treści

Tryb 3 ...............................................................................................................................710
Tryb 4 ...............................................................................................................................710
Tryb 5 ...............................................................................................................................711

Programowanie generatora 8253/8254  ..................................................................................711
Zegar systemowy  ...................................................................................................................714
Układ odświeżania pamięci dynamicznej  ..............................................................................715
Obsługa głośnika ....................................................................................................................717
Drugi układ 8254 i jego zastosowanie  ...................................................................................719

Rozdział 18. Pamięć CMOS-RAM ............................................................................ 721

Organizacja pamięci CMOS ..................................................................................................722

Rejestr A (offset 0Ah)  .....................................................................................................724
Rejestr B (offset 0Bh)  ......................................................................................................724
Rejestr C (offset 0Ch)  ......................................................................................................725
Rejestr D (offset 0Dh)  .....................................................................................................726
Rejestr E (offset 0Eh) — Diagnostic Status Byte ............................................................726
Rejestr F (offset 0Fh) — Shutdown Byte  ........................................................................727
Konfiguracja napędów dyskietek (offset 10h) .................................................................728
Konfiguracja dysków twardych (offset 12h)  ...................................................................728
Pamięć (offset 15h) ..........................................................................................................729
Suma kontrolna  ................................................................................................................730
Bajt konfiguracji sprzętowej (Equipment Byte)  ..............................................................730

Funkcje BIOS-u obsługujące pamięć konfiguracji ................................................................730

Funkcja 00h  .....................................................................................................................731
Funkcja 01h  .....................................................................................................................731
Funkcja 02h  .....................................................................................................................731
Funkcja 03h  .....................................................................................................................732
Funkcja 04h  .....................................................................................................................732
Funkcja 05h  .....................................................................................................................733
Funkcja 06h  .....................................................................................................................733
Funkcja 07h  .....................................................................................................................733

Bezpośredni dostęp do pamięci CMOS .................................................................................734

Rozdział 19. Obsługa urządzeń wejściowych ........................................................... 735

Klawiatura ..............................................................................................................................735

Mapa klawiatury  ..............................................................................................................737
Organizacja obsługi klawiatury przez BIOS  ...................................................................743
Funkcje przerwania 16h BIOS-u  .....................................................................................748
Bezpośrednie programowanie klawiatury  .......................................................................752

Mysz .......................................................................................................................................762

Moduły dostosowujące a podłączanie myszy ..................................................................763
Funkcja 00h  .....................................................................................................................765
Funkcja 01h  .....................................................................................................................765
Funkcja 02h  .....................................................................................................................766
Funkcja 03h  .....................................................................................................................766
Funkcja 04h  .....................................................................................................................766
Funkcja 05h  .....................................................................................................................767
Funkcja 06h  .....................................................................................................................767
Funkcja 0Bh .....................................................................................................................768

Manipulator ............................................................................................................................768

Funkcja 84h .....................................................................................................................770

Urządzenia bezprzewodowe ..................................................................................................771

Transmisja w paśmie podczerwieni .................................................................................771
Transmisja radiowa ..........................................................................................................772
Bluetooth ..........................................................................................................................772

12 Anatomia

Rozdział 20. Łącze szeregowe ................................................................................ 775

Asynchroniczna transmisja szeregowa ..................................................................................775
Układ scalony 8250 ................................................................................................................777
Interfejs RS-232C ..................................................................................................................780

Tryb simpleksowy  ...........................................................................................................782
Tryb półdupleksowy  ........................................................................................................783
Tryb dupleksowy  .............................................................................................................783

Dostęp do łącza szeregowego z poziomu systemu MS-DOS ................................................785

Funkcja 03h  .....................................................................................................................785
Funkcja 04h  .....................................................................................................................786
Funkcja 3Fh  .....................................................................................................................786
Funkcja 40h  .....................................................................................................................786

Funkcje BIOS-u obsługujące łącze szeregowe ......................................................................787

Funkcja 00h  .....................................................................................................................789
Funkcja 01h  .....................................................................................................................790
Funkcja 02h  .....................................................................................................................791
Funkcja 03h  .....................................................................................................................791

Bezpośrednie programowanie rejestrów UART ....................................................................792

Przerwania generowane przez łącze szeregowe  ..............................................................793
Prędkość transmisji  ..........................................................................................................796
Sygnały sterujące  .............................................................................................................796
Układ UART 16450 .........................................................................................................799

Rozdział 21. Łącze równoległe ............................................................................... 801

Terminologia programu konfiguracyjnego BIOS-u ...............................................................803
Tryby podstawowe .................................................................................................................804

Tryb standardowy  ............................................................................................................804
Tryb półbajtowy ...............................................................................................................810
Tryb bajtowy (PS/2)  ........................................................................................................811
Tryb EPP ..........................................................................................................................811
Tryb ECP  .........................................................................................................................814

Realizacja portu równoległego w ramach architektury PC ....................................................819
Dostęp do łącza równoległego poprzez funkcje BIOS-u .......................................................820

Funkcja 00h  .....................................................................................................................820
Funkcja 01h  .....................................................................................................................822
Funkcja 02h  .....................................................................................................................822

Dostęp do łącza równoległego z poziomu systemu MS-DOS ...............................................824

Funkcja 05h .....................................................................................................................824
Funkcja 40h .....................................................................................................................824

Ogólne zastosowanie łącza równoległego ...............................................................................825

Rozdział 22. Złącze USB ........................................................................................ 831

Specyfikacja ...........................................................................................................................831
Topologia ...............................................................................................................................832
Okablowanie ..........................................................................................................................834
Protokół ..................................................................................................................................836
Pakiety ....................................................................................................................................837
Sterowanie w trybach LS/FS (USB 1.1) ................................................................................839
Sterowanie w trybie HS (USB 2.0) ........................................................................................840
USB w praktyce .....................................................................................................................843

Windows 95 .....................................................................................................................845
Windows 98/98SE ...........................................................................................................845
Windows NT ....................................................................................................................846
Windows 2000/XP/2003 ..................................................................................................846
USB 2.0 ............................................................................................................................846

Spis treści

Urządzenia USB .....................................................................................................................847

Klawiatury .......................................................................................................................847
Myszy ..............................................................................................................................847
Kontrolery gier .................................................................................................................848
Dyski twarde ....................................................................................................................848
Moduły pamięci Flash EEPROM  ....................................................................................849
Napędy optyczne  .............................................................................................................849
Czytniki kart pamięci i aparaty cyfrowe ..........................................................................849
Skanery ............................................................................................................................850
Drukarki ...........................................................................................................................850
Sieci komputerowe  ..........................................................................................................850

Rozdział 23. Złącze bezprzewodowe wykorzystujące fale podczerwieni (IrDA) .......... 851

Protokoły komunikacyjne IrDA .............................................................................................851

Standard IrDA-CONTROL .............................................................................................852
Standard IrDA-DATA .....................................................................................................853

IrDA w praktyce .....................................................................................................................855

Windows 95  .....................................................................................................................857
Windows 98  .....................................................................................................................858
Windows ME  ...................................................................................................................858
Windows NT ....................................................................................................................858
Windows 2000  .................................................................................................................858
Windows XP ....................................................................................................................859

Rozdział 24. System ograniczania zużycia energii (ACPI) ........................................ 861

Model warstwowy ACPI ........................................................................................................862
Przegląd stanów energetycznych ...........................................................................................865
Wskazówki praktyczne ..........................................................................................................867

Windows 98  .....................................................................................................................867
Windows 2000  .................................................................................................................868
Kontrola sterowników  .....................................................................................................871

Rozdział 25. Nośniki optyczne ................................................................................ 873

Organizacja fizyczna danych .................................................................................................874

Przetwarzanie danych audio  ............................................................................................874
Przetwarzanie danych cyfrowych  ....................................................................................877
Informacja subkanałowa  ..................................................................................................878
Subkanał Q i TOC  ...........................................................................................................880
Sesja i ścieżka  ..................................................................................................................882

Formaty ..................................................................................................................................883
Specyfikacje ...........................................................................................................................887
Płyta CD-R .............................................................................................................................888
Płyta CD-RW .........................................................................................................................891
Technologia DVD ..................................................................................................................892

Kodowanie .......................................................................................................................893
Korekcja błędów ..............................................................................................................893
Formaty ............................................................................................................................894
DVD-R .............................................................................................................................894
DVD-RW .........................................................................................................................895
DVD+R/+RW ..................................................................................................................896
Płyty dwuwarstwowe — Dual Layer ...............................................................................897
DVD-RAM ......................................................................................................................897
Płyta DVD .......................................................................................................................899
HD DVD ..........................................................................................................................902

14 Anatomia

Czytniki i nagrywarki .............................................................................................................905

OPC ..................................................................................................................................908
BURN-Proof i pochodne  .................................................................................................908
MultiRead ........................................................................................................................909
Mount Rainier  ..................................................................................................................909
Audio Master  ...................................................................................................................910
Urządzenia kombinowane z DVD  ...................................................................................910

Badanie formatu nośnika .......................................................................................................914
Standard Blu-ray Disc ............................................................................................................916

Osiągnięcie większej gęstości zapisu  ..............................................................................917
Wytwarzanie płyt Blu-ray Disc  .......................................................................................920
Kompatybilność ze starszymi formatami  ........................................................................923
Zabezpieczenie przed kopiowaniem ................................................................................923
Kasety na dyski Blu-ray ...................................................................................................924

Samodzielna diagnostyka .......................................................................................................924
Technologia LightScribe ........................................................................................................926

Rozdział 26. Nowoczesne magistrale szerokopasmowe ........................................... 929

Fibre Channel .........................................................................................................................930

Topologie .........................................................................................................................931
Sterowanie .......................................................................................................................931
Protokół ............................................................................................................................933
Systemy złączy i okablowanie FC ...................................................................................933
Dyski ze złączem FC .......................................................................................................935

Infini Band .............................................................................................................................937

Architektura .....................................................................................................................938
Sterowanie linii ................................................................................................................938
Protokół ............................................................................................................................939
Okablowanie IBA ............................................................................................................940

Rozdział 27. Karta dźwiękowa ................................................................................ 943

Synteza FM ............................................................................................................................944
Synteza WaveTable ................................................................................................................949
Digitalizacja i obróbka cyfrowa (DSP) ..................................................................................952

Przetworniki ADC i DAC ................................................................................................953

Standard MIDI .......................................................................................................................955

Protokół MIDI .................................................................................................................956
MIDI od strony sprzętowej ..............................................................................................957

Modelowanie przestrzenne ....................................................................................................959
Wyprowadzenia zewnętrzne ..................................................................................................964

Sygnały analogowe i mikser ............................................................................................964
Sygnały cyfrowe ..............................................................................................................965

Wykorzystanie zasobów systemowych ..................................................................................968
„Sound on Board” według specyfikacji AC’97 .....................................................................969

Schemat blokowy systemu AC’97 ...................................................................................970
Układ scalony Codec AC’97 ...........................................................................................972

Rozdział 28. Modemy ............................................................................................. 975

Implementacje modemów analogowych ................................................................................975
Modulacja sygnału .................................................................................................................978

AM i QAM ......................................................................................................................978
FSK ..................................................................................................................................979
PM i PSK .........................................................................................................................979
PCM .................................................................................................................................979
TCM .................................................................................................................................979

Spis treści

Standardy ...............................................................................................................................980

Standardy Bell  .................................................................................................................981
V.21/V.22/V.22bis/V.23 ..................................................................................................981
V.32/V.32bis/V.32turbo ..................................................................................................981
V.34 (V.Fast, V.34+, V.FC)  ............................................................................................981
V.42 (MNP)/V.42bis  .......................................................................................................981
V.90 .................................................................................................................................982
V.92 .................................................................................................................................984
Dalsze perspektywy  .........................................................................................................984

Polecenia AT ..........................................................................................................................985
Łańcuchy inicjalizujące ..........................................................................................................986
Zestaw układów sterujących modemu ...................................................................................987
Konfiguracja i diagnostyka modemów ..................................................................................988

Środki własne OS ............................................................................................................988
Programy dodatkowe .......................................................................................................988

Modemy cyfrowe ISDN .........................................................................................................992
Protokół ISDN .......................................................................................................................994

Warstwa fizyczna .............................................................................................................995
Warstwa łącza danych .....................................................................................................995
Warstwa sieci ...................................................................................................................996
Rozszerzenia funkcjonalności .........................................................................................999

Modemy xDSL .......................................................................................................................999

Technologia transmisji ...................................................................................................1000

Modemy HiS ........................................................................................................................1002

Rozdział 29. PC w sieci lokalnej ........................................................................... 1005

Model OSI ............................................................................................................................1006

Warstwa fizyczna (L1)  ..................................................................................................1006
Łącze (L2) ......................................................................................................................1007
Sieć (L3)  ........................................................................................................................1007
Transport (L4) ................................................................................................................1008
Sesja (L5) .......................................................................................................................1008
Warstwa prezentacji (L6)  ..............................................................................................1008
Warstwa użytkowa (L7)  ................................................................................................1008

Ethernet i TCP/IP .................................................................................................................1008

Kapsułkowanie do ramki Ethernet .................................................................................1009
Protokół TCP/IP .............................................................................................................1011

Karta sieciowa ......................................................................................................................1013

Komunikacja z pamięcią i buforowanie  ........................................................................1014
Formowanie ramki .........................................................................................................1015
Konwersja szeregowo-równoległa .................................................................................1016
Kodowanie i dekodowanie  ............................................................................................1016
Dostęp do medium i wykorzystanie pasma  ...................................................................1017
Chipset karty  ..................................................................................................................1017
Wyposażenie, diagnostyka, konfiguracja  ......................................................................1018

Realizacje sieci Ethernet ......................................................................................................1019
Okablowanie ........................................................................................................................1022

Konstrukcja kabli ...........................................................................................................1022
Kategorie i klasy ............................................................................................................1024

Połączenia PC i proste sieci .................................................................................................1027

Wybór karty sieciowej i okablowania  ...........................................................................1028
System operacyjny i sterowniki protokołów  .................................................................1029
Przesyłanie danych  ........................................................................................................1033
Netio Benchmark  ...........................................................................................................1034

16 Anatomia

Monitorowanie ruchu sieciowego na poziomie pakietów .............................................1035
Nadzorowanie aktywnych połączeń ..............................................................................1037

Sieci bezprzewodowe ...........................................................................................................1037

Specyfikacje ...................................................................................................................1038
Topologie .......................................................................................................................1042
Ramka ............................................................................................................................1043
Uwierzytelnienie ............................................................................................................1043
Bezpieczeństwo .............................................................................................................1044

Rozdział 30. Bluetooth ......................................................................................... 1047

Założenia ogólne i specyfikacje ...........................................................................................1048
Protokoły ..............................................................................................................................1048
Warstwa fizyczna .................................................................................................................1050
Sieć .......................................................................................................................................1051
Pakiety ..................................................................................................................................1053
Bezpieczeństwo ....................................................................................................................1055
Wykrywanie błędów  ............................................................................................................1057
Korekcja błędów  ..................................................................................................................1058
Przykłady zastosowań  ..........................................................................................................1058
Co nowego znajdziemy w Bluetooth V1.2?  ............................................................................1060
Przyszłość Bluetooth ............................................................................................................1060

Rozdział 31. Zasilacz ........................................................................................... 1061

Zasilacz standardu ATX .......................................................................................................1063
Specyfikacja ATX/ATX12V ................................................................................................1066
Dobór zasilacza  ....................................................................................................................1068
Przykładowe rozwiązania  ....................................................................................................1070
Zasilacze dużej mocy  ...........................................................................................................1070

ATXGES (AMD) ...........................................................................................................1070
EPS12V (Intel) ...............................................................................................................1073

Rozdział 32. Zasilacze awaryjne ........................................................................... 1077

Źródła zakłóceń ....................................................................................................................1078

Chwilowe zaniki napięcia ..............................................................................................1078
Spadki o średniej długości .............................................................................................1078
Długotrwałe spadki napięcia ..........................................................................................1079
Przepięcia .......................................................................................................................1079
Pakiety ...........................................................................................................................1079
Wysokie harmoniczne ...................................................................................................1079
Całkowity zanik napięcia ...............................................................................................1079

Zasilacz PC jako odbiornik prądu zmiennego w sieci .........................................................1080
Budowa układów UPS .........................................................................................................1082

Baterie ............................................................................................................................1083
Elementy kontrolne i regulacyjne  ..................................................................................1084
Czas buforowania  ..........................................................................................................1085
Topologie .......................................................................................................................1086
Zakres napięć wejściowych  ...........................................................................................1089

Programy obsługujące urządzenia UPS ...............................................................................1089

Środki systemu operacyjnego ........................................................................................1089
Programy własne producentów UPS .............................................................................1090

Rozdział 33. BIOS i jego program konfiguracyjny .................................................. 1093

Organizacja systemu bezpieczeństwa ..................................................................................1094

Możliwości omijania systemu bezpieczeństwa .............................................................1096

System ochrony przed wirusami atakującymi MBR ............................................................1100
System ładowania wartości predefiniowanych ....................................................................1100

Spis treści

Mechanizm opuszczania programu konfiguracyjnego  ........................................................1101
Ogólna konstrukcja blokowa  ...............................................................................................1101
Programy pseudo-BIOS-SETUP  .........................................................................................1102
Aktualizacja BIOS-u  ............................................................................................................1102

Wstęp .............................................................................................................................1102
Niebezpieczeństwo ........................................................................................................1102
Aktualizacja ...................................................................................................................1102
W razie niepowodzenia — reanimacja ..........................................................................1104
Nowe możliwości — aktualizacja w środowisku Windows ..........................................1104

Nowe trendy w programach BIOS .......................................................................................1105

Obrazki w BIOS-ie  ........................................................................................................1105
Podwójny BIOS  .............................................................................................................1106
POST on Board ..............................................................................................................1106
Voice Diagnostic  ...........................................................................................................1107
Auto-Overclocking ........................................................................................................1107
Soft Menu  ......................................................................................................................1107

Bibliografia .......................................................................................................... 1151

Literatura polskojęzyczna ....................................................................................................1151
Literatura anglojęzyczna ......................................................................................................1156
Wydawnictwa .......................................................................................................................1157

Skorowidz ........................................................................................................... 1159

Dodatek A

Przegląd architektury mikroprocesorów ...................................... DVD-ROM

Dodatek B

Systemy oznaczeń scalonych układów pamięciowych .................. DVD-ROM

Dodatek C

Baza adresów internetowych ...................................................... DVD-ROM

Dodatek D

Przykład współpracy z magistralą ISA ......................................... DVD-ROM

Dodatek E

Rejestry sterowników EGA/VGA ................................................. DVD-ROM

Dodatek F

Funkcje BIOS-u obsługujące karty graficzne ................................. DVD-ROM

Dodatek G

Linux w zastosowaniach ............................................................ DVD-ROM

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