1

Descriptive grammar year 2

Lecture 11: The V + NP + to-

infinitive pattern

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

2

Non-finite complements

• Prototypical complements of the V: NP.

objects.

• Non-prototypical complements:

– Finite clauses
– Non-finite clauses

– more loosely integrated

into the superordinate clause than are finite
clauses

• Main clause

= matrix clause /

superordinate clause

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

3

Non-finite complements

• Form-types

of non-f. clauses:

– infinitival, -ing participle, -ed participle
– (classification based on the inflection of the verb)

• Each clause: a

situation

(an event or a state).

• To-inf clauses

: potential situations.

• -ing clauses

: are factual.

• Bare inf clauses

: an event in which the end-

point is included.

• Participial -ed clauses

: function as object

complements

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

4

To-infinitive clauses

• Subjectless or with an overt subject:

subordinator for + NP

.

• (1)

The best plan would be [

for

them to go

alone]

. – for required

• (2)

*It is not necessary [them to wait any

longer]

.

• (3)

I want [them to leave]

. – no

for

in BrE,

but it is present in other varieties.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

5

The V+NP+to-infinitive pattern

• The NP

: either the subject of the to-

infinitive clause or the object of the matrix

• Compare:

• (4)

We preferred (

for

) the best lawyer in

town to defend the suspect

.

• (5)

We persuaded the best lawyer in town

to defend the suspect

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

6

Testing the structure: prefer

• (4a) We preferred [

S

(for) the best lawyer

in town to defend the suspect

].

• (I) Replacement by a pro-form:

• (4b)

We preferred

that

.

• (II) pseudo-cleft constructions:

• (4c)

What we preferred

was

for

the best

lawyer in town

to defend the suspect

.

– The for-inf clause is a complement of be

2

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

7

Testing the structure: prefer

• (III) Analogy to a corresponding finite

construction:

• (4d)

We preferred that

the best lawyer in

town

should defend the suspect

.

– That-clause is a single constituent,
– By analogy, any to-infinitive clause following

prefer

is a single constituent with subject, and

has the same function as the that-clause.

– the (optional) subordinator for in (4) marks a

clause boundary.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

8

Testing the structure: prefer

• (IV) Passive (i):
• (4e)

For

the best lawyer in town

to defend the

suspect was generally preferred

.

– DO (to-inf clause)

passive subject.

– The subordinator for must introduce the subject.

• (V) Passive (ii):
• (4f)

We preferred (for) the suspect to be

defended by

the best lawyer in town

. (meaning

the same as [4])

– passive within the to-inf clause with subject which

became a by-phrase agent.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

9

Testing the structure: prefer

• (VI) Analogy to a clause with existential

thereas subject:

• (4g)

We preferred [ S

there

to be more

people at the trial]

.

– prefer

can be complemented by a to-infinitive

clause with there as subject (a single constit.)

– so any other sequence

prefer

+ NP + to-

infinitive clause will be a single constituent
and the NP will be its subject.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

10

Testing the structure: prefer

• (VII) VP ellipsis:

• (4h)

The best lawyer in town was

defending the suspect because

• (i) we preferred him to

.

• (ii) *we preferred him

.

– the whole predicate cannot be omitted if we

want to preserve the meaning of the original
sentence (4).

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

11

Testing the structure: prefer

• (VIII) Passive (iii):
• (4i)

*

The best lawyer in town

was preferred to

defend the suspect

.

– the NP the best lawyer in town cannot be the passive

subject – it’s not the object of

prefer

.

• prefer is monotransitive
• Some other verbs like prefer:

want, hate, like,

hope, desire, love

• in AmE this use of the subordinator

for

is

extended to

want

and

prefer

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

12

Testing the structure: persuade

• (5a) We persuaded

the best lawyer in

town

[

S

to defend the suspect

].

• (I) Replacement with a pro-form:
• (5b) *

We persuaded

that

.

– Cf. We persuaded

the best lawyer in town

of

that

.

• (II) pseudo-cleft constructions:
• (5c) *

What we persuaded

was

(for)

the

best lawyer in town

to defend the suspect

.

3

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

13

Testing the structure: persuade

• (III) Analogy to a corresponding finite

construction:

• (5d)

We persuaded

the best lawyer in

town

that he should defend the suspect

.

– well-formed only if the NP

the best lawyer in

town

is outside the that clause.

– the NP is the indirect object of

persuade

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

14

Testing the structure: persuade

• (IV) Passive (i):

• (5e) *

For

the best lawyer in town

to defend

the suspect was generally persuaded

.

– The NP the best lawyer in town isn’t part of

the to-infinitive clause – movement of both the
NP and to-inf disallowed.

– the subordinator

for

introduces a clause – in

(5e) the passive subject is not a single clausal
constituent.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

15

Testing the structure: persuade

• (V) Passive (ii):
• (5f)

We persuaded the suspect to be

defended by

the best lawyer in town

.

(meaning not the same as in [5])

• (VI) Analogy to a clause with existential

thereas subject:

• (5g) *

We persuaded

[ S

there

to be more

people at the trial

].

– Persuade requires two objects.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

16

Testing the structure: persuade

• (VII) VP ellipsis:

• (5h)

The best lawyer in town was

defending the suspect because

• (i) we persuaded him to.

• (ii) we persuaded him

.

• the whole predicate can be dropped.

• the context allows to disambiguate the

reduced construction.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

17

Testing the structure: persuade

• (VIII) Passive (iii):
• (5i)

The best lawyer in town

was

persuaded to defend the suspect

.

– the NP the best lawyer in town is the indirect

object – it can become passive subject.

• persuade

is ditransitive.

• It has two complements: IO and DO.
• Some other verbs like persuade:

force,

help, ask, beg, teach, tell

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

18

Constructions with persuade-like

verbs

• The to-inf clause is subjectless on the surface.

• We understand that that the missing subject is

the NP

the best lawyer in town

.

• In the deep structure there is a subject but it is

covert

(unexpressed on the surface).

• (5j)

We persuaded the best lawyer in town [

PRO

to defend the suspect]

– PRO – an abstract pronoun referring to the NP the

best lawyer in town.

4

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

19

Verbs like believe

• Some tests confirm believe is a

monotransitive V,

• other tests – it is a ditransitive V.

• (6a)

We believe

the best lawyer in town

to

have defended the suspect

.

• (I) Replacement with a pro-form:

• (6b)

We believe

that

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

20

Verbs like believe

• (II) pseudo-cleft constructions:

• (6c) *

What we believe is (

for

) the best

lawyer in town to have defended the
suspect

.

– the subordinator

for

is unacceptable here

– But there is no indication that the expression

is or is not a constituent: in (6c) there is a
different kind of ungrammaticality.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

21

Verbs like believe

• (III) Analogy to a corresponding finite

construction:

• (6d)

We believe that

the best lawyer in

town

defended the suspect

.

– that-clause – a DO, the NP

the best lawyer in

town

– the subject.

– By analogy, the NP

the best lawyer in town

is

the subject of the to-inf clause.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

22

Verbs like believe

• (IV) Passive (i):

• (6e) *

(For)

the best lawyer in town

to have

defended the suspect is generally
believed

.

• The subordinator for is disallowed,

• so the NP

the best lawyer in town

+ to-inf

is not one constituent.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

23

Verbs like believe

• (V) Passive (ii):

• (6f)

We believe the suspect to have been

defended by

the best lawyer in town

.

– Same meaning as in (6a).

• (VI) Analogy to a clause with existential

thereas subject:

• (6g)

We believe [ S

there

to have been

more people at the trial]

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

24

Verbs like believe

• (VII) VP ellipsis:

• (6h)

The best lawyer in town must have

defended the suspect because

• (i) we all believe him to (have).

• (ii) *we all believe him

.

– Believe behaves like a monotransitive verb.

5

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

25

Verbs like believe

• (VIII) Passive (iii):

• (6i)

The best lawyer in town

is believed to

have defended the suspect

.

– the NP the best lawyer in town

the passive

subject.

– the NP functions as the IO of believe.

– believe is like a ditransitive verb in (6i).

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

26

Verbs like believe

• The NP which follows believe displays

both properties of a subject and properties
of an object.

• Controversy: is the postverbal NP

– a subject

– an object

– or both?

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

27

Believe and the reflexive pronouns

• (7)

Mary is very pleased with

herself

.

• Reflexive pronouns cannot be subjects,

• they must occur with their antecedents:

– an expression to which the reflexive pronoun

refers and which always precedes the
pronoun.

– Mary

: antecedent of

herself

.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

28

Believe and the reflexive pronouns

• (8) *

Herself is very pleased

.

• (9) *

Susan thinks [ that Tom likes her

herself

]

.

– Reflexive pronouns and their antecedents

must be

clause-mates

.

• Reflexive pronouns demonstrate how the

V + NP + to-inf. superficial pattern differs
at the deeper level.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

29

Believe and the reflexive pronouns

• (10)

Susan believes [

Julia i

to be fond of

herself i

].

– Julia is the antecedent of herself: they are

clause-mates

• (11)

Susan i

believes

herself i

[to be the

best].

– herself isn’t the subject of the to-infinitive

clause.

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

30

Verbs like believe

• Traditional grammar (e.g. Greenbaum &

Quirk):

believe-like verbs are complex-

transitive.

• More recent grammars: the believe-like

verbs + NP + to-infinitive are

raising-to-

object constructions

.

– Believe-like verbs:

imagine, rumour, say,

suppose

(opinion verbs)

6

Descriptive grammar 11, year 2

31

Deep structure:

the NP originates

in the to-infinitive

clause

The NP is raised from the

to-inf clause to the object

position in the matrix clause

by the rule of raising-to-

object transformation