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Old English contexts of Beowulf and its supernatural characters
793. Her wćron reðe forebecna cumene ofer Norðhymbra land,7 [ond] þćt folc earmlic bregdon, þćt
wćron ormete þodenas [ond]ligrescas, [ond] fyrenne dracan wćron gesewene on þam lifte
7 7
fleogende. Þam tacnum sona fyligde mycel hunger, 7 [ond]litel ćfter þam, þćs ilcan geares on .vi. Idus
Ianuarii, earmlice hćþenra manna hergunc adilegode Godes cyrican in Lindisfarnaee þurh hreaflac 7
[ond]mansliht. 7 [ond]Sicga forðferde on .viii. Kalendas Martius.
[A.D. 793. This year came dreadful portents over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people
most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery
dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine:
and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of
heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island [Lindisfarne], by rapine and
slaughter.]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Early medieval ideas on authorship, anonymity, text, and even reading certainly different from ours:
a. texts  experienced, i.e. read aloud. Audiences mostly aural ( listeners rather than  readers );
b. the ability to read did not always mean the ability to write (the case of King Alfred);
c. writing as copying  often palimpsestic nature of texts. Original authors would have no  textual control over
them in our understanding. Authors did not  usurp their  copyright over the text: it would be selfish and
vain. Hence early medieval anonymity;
d. Old English poetry was thus poetry re-worked after its  original composition (the ur-text was merely a source
for its future scribal copies with possible additions). Did it also imply that the reception of Old English poetry
was therefore freer (i.e. not  controlled by the  idea of the author)?
e. Because of the above Old English poetry is partly  mysterious : we cannot possibly know the answer to the
above  no text on Old English literary theory (apart from some passages in Alcuin s writings: the
word/Word/Logos as essential to the scheme of salvation).
f. how intertextual was Old English poetry? Possible intertextuality (Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburh), also a
range poetic formulas/formulaic expressions used widely across various texts (the case of kennings 
becoming poetic formulas).
Anglo-Saxon scops and their role:
a. the meaning of scop related to scippian  to shape, form, create. God frequently described as Scyppend
 Shaper, Creator  an etymological insight into the role of poets in early societies.
b. The poet as the store of collective memory.
c. Cćdmon (described by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica& ) and his  Hymn.
d. the earliest poet writing in English mentioned by name (ca. 670).
e. the gift of poetry as a divine gift, poetry as divine inspiration and even duty.
f. the role of poetry as translation, interpretation, communication, education and a path towards spiritual
betterment.
The style and the prosody (metrics) of Old English poetry:
a. in MSs poetic texts appear as prose (uninterrupted). We know they are poetic, because they are metric.
b. alliteration - the use of the same consonant (consonantal alliter.) or of a vowel, not necessarily the same vowel
(vocalic alliter.), at the beginning of each word or each stressed syllable in a line of verse.
c. kenning  condensed metaphors (usually consisting of two elements), circumlocutions instead of  unpoetic,
regular words (beaduflama  battle flame, i.e.  a sword, garbeam  spear-tree, i.e.  a warrior, ).
Etymologically related to Old English cenna  to know )
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d. variation  a double or multiple statement of the same concept or idea in different words, with a more or less
perceptible shift in stress. Variations could be of various length and complexity:
" an example of triple and simple variation from Cynewulf s Elene (ll. 460-461):
þćt he Crist wćre, cyning on roderum, / soð sunu meotudes, sawla nergend
[that he was Christ, 1. king in the heavens, 2. true Son of God, 3. souls Saviour]
e. Old English poetry as highly formulaic (repetition of fixed phrases, like wyrd seo mćre  fate is inexorable
etc.)  the trace of oral tradition (formulas facilitated better memorization). All three chief tropes of OE poetry
have their souces in oral beginnings.
f. interestingly, all these elements are analogous in their form to Old English visual arts.
& segn eallgylden
heah ofer horde, hondwundra mćst,
gelocen leoðocrćftum; &
[Beowulf, 2767b-2769a]
[a standard all of gold,
high over the hoard, most wondrously made by hand,
woven with the skill of hands / the skill of poetry]
Contents of Beowulf (a summary):
Opens with the genealogy of the early Danish kings; later King Hrothgar builds a magnificent hall
Heorot; it is then attacked by a man-eating monster, Grendel; after twelve years of carnage Beowulf,
a prince of the Geats (cont. Southern Sweden), comes and kills Grendel; celebrations follow; but
Grendel s monstrous mother comes to avenge her son; Beowulf then kills her in an underwater cave
where the monsters lived; more celebrations follow; Beowulf returns home and reports to his uncle,
King Hygelac; after the death of Hygelac, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats; rules for fifty years;
then a sleeping dragon is awoken by someone stealing part of the treasure it guarded; the dragon
ravages and burns the lands of Beowulf; Beowulf then fights it and is supported by only one of his
men, Wiglaf (the rest flee); both Beowulf and the dragon die fighting each other. Beowulf is then
mourned, his body is burned and everything closes with a dark prophecy of chaos and destruction for
the Geats.
Beowulf: national/tribal identity, heroic tradition and an epic tale.
" the age of uncertainty  migrating memories and identities;
" the pagan hero in the Christian context  Beowulf the hero;
" magic, otherness and atavism in Beowulf the poem;
" the heroic ideal (?)  social structures mirrored in literature;
Beowulf MS: British Library Cotton Vitellius A.XV, also known as the Nowell Codex.
Perhaps the monster-manuscript (?). The MS contains also:
" a life of St. Christopher;
" Wonders of the East, fantastic descriptions of far-away lands with their curios;
" A Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, again journeys to the fantastic East;
" Beowulf;
" Judith, a biblical poem on Judith s defeat of Holofernes (by beheading).
Heroic culture and history:
Tacitus (1st c. AD Roman historian): importance of the heroic tradition among continental Germanic tribes.
Warrior society heroic culture heroic narratives heroic literature later evolution into medieval culture of
chivalry and knighthood contemporary heroic culture (James Bond, Batman etc.)
The hero as a monster too? Different, other, superhuman.
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Intertextuality of Anglo-Saxon culture  the epic proves cultural connection with the continental Germanic past.
a. Source and origins, elements of magic and the world of fantasy.
b. Different time of creation/action (origins before 5th/6th c.?) and of written composition (10th/11th c.).
c. Style, diction and the mode of expression in Beowulf.
a. the setting and the visual atmosphere of the epic.
b. onomatopoeic elements.
c. Poetic tropes: kennings, variation, alliteration.
d. The heroic idea as a didactic power in the poem.
e. The world of the uncanny (unknown): a metaphor of the mysterious element in human existence and of life
as a struggle. Beowulf s monster as signs (monster  demonstrate).
f. Old English fatalism and instability present in the idea of WYRD  fate.
g. Christianity as clearly a later addition (by the scribes).
Grendel  a par excellence liminal and shadowy being: a troll, a misshapen human, a monstrous hybrid, a fiend from
Hell, or something else?
Liminal, liminality (in cultural anthropology, developed by Victor Turner in 1950s and  60s) 
ambiguity, disorientation associated with a passage to a different state/status in one s existence.
Liminality often more important than what it marks  how a culture marks rituals of passage may say
a lot about that culture.
Liminality  Lat. limes (border). In cultural theory: the state of in-betweenness, border-like condition,
close to hybridity, difference by not belonging to either of two or more spheres.
a. Mysterious name  unclear etymology of Grendel: from grindan  to ground, grund  ground/sea-bottom,
also cf. Old Norse grindill  storm, Middle English gryndel  angry ? In Yorkshire and Lancashire folklore
legends of Gryndilow.
b. Several of some fifty terms  note how all of them indicate Grendel s liminality: atol aglćca  terrible
monster, deorc deaþscua  dark deathshadow, fyrena hyrede  keeper of crimes, heorowearh hetelic  hatefeul
blood-wolf, bona blodtigtoð  bloody-toothed killer, scaedugenga,  shadow-walker, mćre mearcstapa
 famous treader of the borderland, ellorgast  spirit from elsewhere, werga gast  grim spirit, ellengćst
 mighty spirit .
c. Grendel and his mother inhabit the borderland  Grendel as a creature of the marshlands: se þe moras
heold, fen ond fćsten  [he] who ruled the moors, fens and fastness
d. Given both biblical ancestry (descendant of Cain) and native pagan belief.
e. A threat to mankind but also under a threat from mankind.
The dragon (OE draca, Lat. draco, Gr. drakon) is also liminal - the elements it spans are also contrastive (earth, air,
fire, dragon-like creatures also inhabit the seas and waters in Beowulf).
a. Dragon as a hybrid  a winged snake. Sometimes alos called wyrm "the worm , "serpent .
b. In Biblical context it is the devilish serpent.
c. Uhtsceaða "dawn ravager"; niðdraca "dragon of malice"; ðeodsceaða "ravager of people"; guðsceaða "warlike
destroyer"; ligdraca, fyrdraca "fire-dragon"; inwitgćst "deceitful guest".
d. In Old Norse contexts (dragons= serpents+ wisdom): Nidhogg is a serpent tormenting the bodies of the dead;
Fafnir (embracer), killed by Sigurd the Dragon-slayer who ate his heart; dragon figureheads mounted on ship-
prows.
e. And yet, dragon shapes and ornamentation are shapes signifying power.