POPE and EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ENGLISH POETRY
General introduction
The writers of the eighteenth century rejected the extreme or the extravagant. Swift ridiculed heroism in all forms, especially the military, Pope (a Roman Catholic) took care to distance himself from the asceticism of the monks and hermits of the Middle Ages, and Johnson warned against the `dangerous prevalency of the imagination'. Instead, these men preferred the unheroic, social virtues of good sense and good humour, and (at least in Johnson's case) the religious value of a resigned, unambitious will. These values are connected with another feature of the period, its confidence in human reason.
The bulk of the eighteenth century, together with the last part of the seventeenth, is sometimes known as the Age of Reason, and though the title has been much and rightly questioned in recent years, there is some truth in it. Two influences are crucial. The first is that of Isaac Newton (1642-1727), his discoveries in physics and the progress which was being made in the natural sciences generally. In the eighteenth century, people were aware, with varying degrees of dimness, of this progress, and many were made excited, enthusiastic and optimistic because of it, for knowledge, perhaps absolute knowledge, seemed attainable. The second influence was that of John Locke (1632-1704), who wrote in the last decade of the seventeenth century on the human mind, on government, on tolerance and on Christianity. Locke propounds a number of views, including (limited) religious toleration, a rational Christianity that anticipates deism, and the belief that at birth human beings possess no `innate ideas'. But it was as much his reasoned, empirical method that was important as the positions he argued, because his writings exemplify how reason may be put to work.
The rationalism of eighteenth-century attitudes affected its religion. Generally distrustful of anything that smacked of fanaticism (`enthusiasm' was the eighteenth-century word for fanaticism), many Christians sought a religion that was restrained and sensible. At its worst, this led to a set of beliefs so diluted that hell could not be mentioned to `ears polite' nor heaven contemplated with any degree of excitement. At its best, it led to humanity, openness and tolerance. However, if eighteenth-century Christianity is often a rather milk-and-water affair, this is also the period of a remarkable `fundamentalist' revival, that of Methodism. John Wesley (1703-91) through his exceptional energy and powers of organisation formed a movement which spread rapidly among the poorer sections of the population and which remains today the largest non-established church. The influence of Methodism is evident in the poetry of William Cowper and in the hymns of John's brother, Charles.
The attitude towards reason among the writers is not always simple. After a struggle, Dryden finally put faith before reason by accepting miracles, and Johnson shows the limitations of philosophy in The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749) and in Rasselas (1759). Perhaps most memorable of all is Swift's attack on human claims to reason in the fourth book of Gulliver's Travels (1726). In the second epistle of his Essay on Man (1732-4) Pope sees reason as the ruling moral faculty of a well-ordered individual, the faculty which restrains self-love and regulates the passions.
The confidence in reason sprang in part from ideas about `nature', a word which occurs frequently in writings of the period, and which was used to mean many different things. Essentially, however, it connotes qualities which are universal and fixed, and which by diligent enquiry might be discovered beneath the variety and flux of life. Thus, when Pope in An Essay on Criticism (1711) urges the critic to `follow nature', he is recommending attention to those elements of human nature which are not merely local. The poet should examine `not the individual but the species'. The poet's concern, like that of any rational person, should not be with details and particulars which change and dazzle, but with nature and the general which remain and reassure.
The association of nature with absolutes led to two distinctive and related features of the period: the admiration of the ancients and the emphasis upon correctness and the rules. Many writers looked back to the classical age with veneration, and indeed, the term Augustan, which is sometimes applied to the period (strictly to the first four decades of the eighteenth century but more loosely to the whole age), refers to the way in which writers like Pope modelled their writing on that produced by poets, especially Virgil (70-19 BC) and Horace (65-8 BC), in the reign of Augustus. The explanation for this reverence is fairly simple. Since nature does not change and since the ancients had the best opportunity of representing it, later and less fortunate people can learn of nature by reading their works.
A similar explanation can be given for the stress which was laid on correctness. The belief was that certain kinds of literature, certain genres, were by virtue of their distinctive language, their kinds of plot, their characteristic subjects, particularly well adapted to representing certain features of nature. Thus, pastoral poetry could show love and innocence, the epistle could deal with the `middle kind' of subject, and the epic could represent the noble and heroic. Since the ancients had already discovered these genres, modern writers wishing to write truthfully should observe the rules implicit in ancient writings and follow these. In this way, the adherence to rules was based upon the desire to be truthful rather than simply the desire to be obedient. It should also be added that every major writer of the period saw the need for departing from the rules in order to achieve a greater flourish or a more magnificent beauty. Moreover, the respect for rules and the traditional hierarchies of genres was eroding quite rapidly in the final third of the period
All the elements mentioned thus far combined to make the poets of the day write in ways which are unfamiliar in the twentieth century. Our preferred genre is the lyric, and most students, when asked, will confirm that to them the word `poem' means something of twenty or thirty lines. The Age of Reason, however, is principally a period of the long poem, and particularly of the long meditative poem and the long satiric poem, in which virtues are praised and vices criticised.
It is remarkable that there is no epic from the period. The hierarchies of genres put the epic firmly at the top, as the production that the true poet should aspire to. And aspire they did. The doctor-poet Sir Richard Blackmore (1654-1729) wrote, between his sickbed visits, no fewer than four epics, all of them scorned in his lifetime and forgotten soon after it. A serious poet like Pope shared the same ambitions, and planned throughout his life to write a Brutiad which would account for the origins of the British in the way that the Aeneid accounts for the origins of the Romans. However, Pope never wrote his own epic, producing instead his translations of Homer, his poetical essays, and most notably of all, his satires - many of them the kind of ill-shaped, passionate and local works which seem to deny his own rules of taste.
Although most people lived in the country, publishing and literary activity was concentrated in the city, that is in London. London was growing throughout the period, its population doubling during the course of the eighteenth century to stand at about one million at the end of it. Often this growth was greeted with excitement, as in Defoe's comment in his Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724-6): `New squares and new streets rising up every day to such a prodigy of buildings that nothing in the world does, or ever did, equal it, except old Rome in Trajan's times.' Much of the spread of the city was westward, where large houses were being built to accommodate the wealthy. The reason for the choice of the west as the site for expansion was simple: the prevailing easterly winds kept the stink of the city to the east away from the area.
That smell was caused by the practice of burning `sea-coal' from Newcastle and by the general unsanitariness of eighteenth-century London. The central and eastern parts of the city were a dark warren in which disease and crime prospered. The sewage from urban households was deposited in cesspits in gardens or cellars until it was removed by the night-soil man, to be taken by him to the Thames or to the market gardeners who used it as a fertiliser. Other waste was dumped in the streets, in Fleet Ditch or in the river. The river was also, of course, the city's reservoir, its already dirty water being pushed by the force of the rapids under London Bridge along rotten wooden pipes, through filth-impregnated soil, to the public pumps in streets and squares.
Not surprisingly, many Londoners were driven by their circumstances to crime and to drink. Some parts of the city, at least in the first half of the eighteenth century, were (in a grotesque distortion of the medieval sanctuaries they had once been) havens for criminals and `no-go areas' for the inadequate forces of the law. But all over the city, there were dangers, especially at night in the unlit or ill-lit streets, from pickpockets and footpads. For the adult poor, the danger was less from criminals and more from lethal gin, advertised by the no-nonsense slogan of `drunk for a penny, dead drunk for twopence'. Because of the low duty on the drink (a government measure to encourage a native industry), it was cheap and easy to set up a gin shop, so that by 1736 there were 6000 to 7000 in London - one for every hundred inhabitants. Eventually in 1751, a popular outcry moved Parliament to pass effective measures for the curbing of this evil. But perhaps no fact or figure can illustrate the harshness of London life so vividly as the infant mortality rates. Parish registers show that in the better parishes of the `inner' city, only one in four babies survived longer than a year. In the worst parishes, the infant mortality rate was 100 per cent.
Although some of the poetry of the period deals with the city, little of it (in the present writer's opinion) conveys any sense of the toughness of urban life. Gay's Trivia (1716), though full of concrete local details, is so engrossed with its own wit and allusiveness that the ultimate effect is one of trivialisation. Perhaps it was simply that the poetry of the period (the poetry of any period) was the wrong form for describing city life. And if we want an idea of what life was like in the city we must turn to the novel, in particular to Defoe's novels, Moll Flanders (1722), Colonel Jack (1722), or even the historical Journal of the Plague Year (1722).
One other element of the social life of the period should be mentioned before moving on to great events - the life of women. Throughout the seventeenth century the responsibilities of well-to-do women were gradually eroded. In the sixteenth century, a `housewife' was the chief of a household, in effect a small workplace, and she had a large number of duties, including managing staff, overseeing cookery, cleaning, herb and medical gardening, and the manufacture of all manner of household goods from clothes to candles. Before the Protestant Reformation at the beginning of that century, she also had a key position in the religious life with her responsibility for the regulation of diet. In the seventeenth century, however, many of these duties disappeared, and by the end of it, the role of a wealthy woman was to drink coffee and gossip. It is this kind of life which is exposed in Pope's The Rape of the Lock (1712-14), and Montagu's Saturday: The Small-Pox (1716). Mary Leapor's Man the Manarch (1745-6) shows a different kind of female experience, that of the domestic worker.
Among events, probably the most significant in the period is a series just before it: the Civil Wars (1642-51) and the commonwealth that followed them (1649-60). The enormous and traumatic upheaval of these two decades was important in two principal ways. First, it provided an example for many years afterwards of the suffering which could be caused by tyranny, rebellion and faction. Second, it caused a shift, or helped to cause, in the balance of power between king and Parliament. The issues at stake in the Civil Wars were partly religious and partly political, with the political question turning upon the king's authority. To some extent, the curbing of that authority - represented in Parliament's military victory of 1648, the execution of Charles I in 1649, and the crushing defeat of Charles II at the Battle of Worcester in 1651 - seems to have been short-lived. The return of Charles II in 1660 and the popularity of his Restoration appear to spell a revival of the king's power, and to some extent that is true. Though challenged by such events as the Exclusion Crisis (1678-81) during his reign, Charles held firmly to his kingly authority.
Yet despite the reign of Charles II and his tenacious grip on power, English history was moving towards a system of government in which the monarch would play a less commanding role. The new power of Parliament represented an important political change. Parliament acquired a new power, prestige and earnestness under its Hanoverian kings, so that it was, in the words of one historian, `generally accepted at its own valuation as the principal organ of the nation's will'. This fact is quite strikingly conveyed by the way that histories of the eighteenth century tend to be organised around ministries, not (as with histories of earlier centuries) around reigns.
The new power of Parliament went hand in hand with economic and social changes. Political debate in the first part of the eighteenth century was sometimes couched in terms of a struggle between the `Land Interest' and the `Money Interest'. In this struggle, the land, the traditional source of wealth and power, was destined to lose to money, to the entrepreneurs and merchants of the city; in short, to trade. Trade had been increasing rapidly since the 1670s, and with the foundation of the Bank of England in 1694, London became an important financial centre. Perhaps the most immediately obvious effect of the growth was the availability of a wide range of luxury goods from abroad: the coffee, cocoa, ivory and chinoiserie referred to in The Rape of the Lock and Saturday: The Small-Pox. Less obvious and more fundamental effects were the gradual changes that were taking place in the nation's class structure, and in the relations between master and man.
The end of our period saw two other great changes: the agricultural and industrial revolutions. Farms became self-enclosed units like those we know today, with the farmer taking responsibility on himself for the upkeep of his fields and the health of his animals. The industrial revolution represented a change more important even than the agricultural. Insofar as it can be precisely dated, it occurred between 1760 and 1790, and the revolutionary effects of the changes were not at first apparent. Thus, it is not commented upon by any of our poets. Nevertheless, the harnessing of power, the concentration of workers in factories, the simplification and specialisation of tasks, the growth of towns and cities, the establishment of pure cash relations between master and man - all these various facets of the industrial revolution altered the way people lived. Historians who take a broad sweep identify two crucial changes in the history of humanity. The first is the development of agriculture and the settlement of wandering communities of hunters and gatherers into stable villages. The second is the industrial revolution.
In terms of literary history, or at least poetic history, the period can be divided fairly neatly into three sections of more or less equal length: the Age of Dryden (to 1700), the Age of Pope (to 1744) and the Age of Johnson (to 1784). In a nutshell, the first of these sees the establishment of classical principles, along with the heroic couplet as the predominant form; the second, the Augustan Age, sees the consolidation and culmination of that tendency; the third sees its gradual disintegration. Nutshells, however, are of very limited use in literary history, and such a generalisation contains as much distorting half-truth as it does real truth. The reader is best advised to turn directly to the poetry.
Two developments in literary history, which do not involve too much generalisation, can also be mentioned. These are the increasing independence of the writer, and the rise of the novel.
Between the years 1720 and 1750 the novel emerged as an important genre. Of course, the novel is the subject of much critical debate: what it is, when it started, if it rose. Nevertheless, it seems sensible to say that with the publication by Defoe of Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders (1722), by Samuel Richardson of Pamela (1740-1) and Clarissa Harlowe (1747-8) and by Henry Fielding of Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), we see a new kind of prose fiction and one which is recognisable as the novel we know today. Although these novels are not now as widely read as their nineteenth-century successors, they established that form of writing which was to become the dominant literary genre for nearly two centuries. Even today, it tends to be novels which people read if they read anything.
Adapted from:Eighteenth-Century English Poetry. The Annotated Anthology,
ed. Nalini Jain and John Richardson (New York: Harvester-Wheatsheaf, 1994).
A brief biography of Alexander Pope
Pope was born on 21 May, 1688, in London. His father was a cloth merchant living in the City (a part of London); both his parents were Catholic. It was a period of intense anti-Catholic sentiment in England, and at some point (ca. 1700) in Alexander's childhood, the Pope family was forced to relocate to be in compliance with a statute forbidding Catholics from living within ten miles of London or Westminster. They moved to Binfield (Berkshire).
Pope's early education was affected by his Catholicism: Catholic schools, although illegal, were allowed to survive in some places. Prior to the move to Binfield Pope spent a year at Twyford, where he wrote "a satire on some faults of his master," which led to his being "whipped and ill-used...and taken from thence on that account." (Spence). From Twyford Alexander went to study with Thomas Deane, a convert to Catholicism (who lost his position at Oxford as a result of his religious beliefs). After the Pope family moved to Binfield Alexander became self-taught.
Pope's disease - apparently tuberculosis of the bone - became evident when he was about twelve. Later in Pope's life, Sir Joshua Reynolds described him as "about four feet six high; very humpbacked and deformed." A more recent biographer, Maynard Mack, has written that Pope was "afflicted with constant headaches, sometimes so severe that he could barely see the paper he wrote upon, frequent violent pain at bone and muscle joints..., shortness of breath, increasing inability to ride horseback or even walk for exercise...."
William Wycherley, impressed by some of Pope's early poetry, introduced him into fashionable London literary circles (in 1704). Public attention came with the publication of Pastorals in 1709. The Rape of the Lock helped secure Pope's reputation as a leading poet of the age.
Pope moved to his villa in Twickenham in 1717. While there he received visitors (just about everyone), attacked his literary contemporaries (just about eveyone, although notable exceptions were Swift and Gay, with whom he had close friendships), and continued to publish poetry. He died on 21 May, 1744, at Twickenham.
The mock heroic poem
The mock-heroic poem was one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the 18th century. Although earlier representatives of this genre can be found, such as Batrachomyomachia, written in ancient times, or Chaucer's The Nun Priest's Tale, or finally Tassoni's Renaissance La Secchia Rapita (The Rape of the Bucket), it was only at the end of the 17th century and the 18th century that it enjoyed rapid development.
The most characteristic feature of the mock-heroic poem is the discrepancy between a trivial subject and a high style. The style is modelled on the high style of the heroic poem, the mock heroic poem contains elements parodying the heroic poem. The poem does not only display parody of the motifs of the heroic poem, but also certain rules of classical rhetoric, in the first place it violates the rule of decorum, i.e. the principle of appropriateness. The length of the mock-heroic poem corresponds to its seriousness. Unlike heroic poems in which length corresponds to their seriousness, the mock heroic poems are much shorter. Mock heroic poems were written during the Augustan age - the age of a strong influence of the court. The aristocracy centred around the court dictated the intellectual tone of the epoch and, at least at the beginning of the period, shaped its literary taste.
Titles of mock-heroic poems suggest indirectly that the subjects of the poems are trivial. The titles are most often connected with objects used by women, e.g. the fan, the petticoat, the patch, or objects of luxury, tea being an example of it in those days. The title of Pope's poem, which is an allusion to Tassoni's La Secchia Rapita, introduces the dissonance: two words with different associations are juxtaposed: `rape' refers to something dramatic and violent, while `lock' to something trivial. The subtitle `an heroi-comical poem' appearing with most of the poems is even more significant. The convention of the mock-heroic poem is further affirmed in the majority of the poems of this period by a motto, most often taken from ancient authors, such as Homer, Horace, Virgil and others. The majority of the poems of the period are characteristically preceded by dedication addressed to a woman, which indicates that the poems are frequently of an occasional nature.
The majority of mock-heroic epics begin with the statement of the subject or invocation to the Muse. The machinery appears in mock-heroic poems either as sylphs or most often as Olympic gods. The machinery was mainly used to intervene in trivial conflicts or to serve beautiful women. For example, each of the sylphs in The Rape of the Lock is entrusted with one item of Belinda's clothes, with special attention being paid to her petticoat. The machinery of the mock-heroic poem frequently forms a pretext for a parodistic treatment of another motif taken from the heroic poem, mainly of the councils of Olympic gods or councils of warriors or assemblies of women. Councils concern trivial matters, for example, in John Gay's The Petticoat, the heroines argue for and against the new invention - the petticoat.
Another convention parodied by the mock-heroic poem is that of a Homeric feast: it takes the shape of solemn tea or coffee drinking. The description of tea-drinking is frequently a pretext for introducing exotic elements and for presenting China dishes, very popular at that time and frequently described in literature.
A warning or advice in a dream is another frequently parodied convention of the heroic epic. The warnings or advice often have erotic implications. Just as in the heroic poem, the hero was often warned about some imminent danger, so Ariel in The Rape of the Lock warns Belinda in her dream “to beware of man.”
The motif of battle, most characteristic of the heroic poem, is also sometimes parodied in mock heroic poems of the 18th century. We encounter battles of looks or battles where objects are used in defiance of their function - they often come from the lady's dressing room. One of the variants of the battle is the game of cards. We see Belinda and the Baron playing ombre in Canto Three. The military vocabulary used during the game suggests a parody of Homeric battles. Earlier, in Canto One, the toilet scene, with Belinda and Betty, conveyed the idea of the hero arming for the battle is. This important scene may also be read as a ridicule of the sacrificial ceremony which always preceded the actual fighting (such as when Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter to win the favour of the gods in the expedition against Troy).
(from: Grażyna Bystydzieńska,
The English Mock-Heroic Poem of the 18th century
(Warsaw: PWN, 1982).
Alexander Pope [1688-1744]
THE RAPE OF THE LOCK. AN HEROI-COMICAL POEM
Introduction
A quarrel between two prominent Catholic families had resulted from the cutting of a lock of hair from the head of Miss Arabella Fermor [pronounced Farmer] by Lord Petre. It was to heal the quarrel that Pope wrote the poem. Miss Fermor is Belinda; Lord Petre is the baron.
The enormous success of the first version [1712], which was written with great speed, convinced Pope to extend the poem from two cantos to five and to revise the original [1713]. In 1717, he added Clarissa's speech in Canto V. By its final version the poem had grown from 234 lines to 794 lines.
The poem is written in heroic couplets, that is, in rhymed pairs of regular iambic pentameters. Each line has a caesura (a pause), and Pope relives the potential monotony of the heroic couplet by varying the position of the caesura.
The Rape of the Lock is a “mock epic”, that is, a comic poem on an essentially trivial incident employing for the purpose of heightened comedy the elevated epic frame, corroborated by numerous allusions to serious episodes in Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare, and Milton. The traditional elements which provide the epic context are (1) the opening “proposition” or “invocation”; (2) parody of actual epic speeches; (3) epic similes; (4) a supernatural agent appearing in a dream; (5) the use of allegorical figures, given their appropriate setting; (6) the learned survey of a tract of knowledge; (7) the visit to the underworld; (8) the large-scale battle; (9) the epic denouement of strategy in war; and (10) the characteristic epic ending through deus ex machina.
Since this is a mock epic, Pope subjects the traditional epic elements to a process of diminution: for the epic protagonist, he presents a woman; in the place of the rape of Helen is a stolen lock of hair; epic meals become ceremonials around a silver tea set; trembling petticoats take the place of great shields. For the epic battle, he substitutes a game of cards upon a velvet plain and a fracas of fans, silks, and whalebone. In short, everything is made smaller in size and exquisitely feminine. The epic protagonist, Belinda, has hysterics, and the epic antagonist, the Hector-like baron, sneezes.
Plot outline
Canto One: proposition and invocation; Belinda's dream; the supernatural world of salamanders, nymphs, sylphs and gnomes; the warning of coming danger; Belinda waking and making up.
Canto Two: Belinda on the Thames; her two locks; the Baron and his plans to cut one of them; the defence plans and preparations of Belinda's guardian and sylphs.
Canto Three: Hampton Court and its activities; the first battle - the game of ombre between Belinda and the Baron; coffee drinking; Clarissa's scissors and the cutting of the lock; the Baron's speech of triumph.
Canto Four: Umbriel and the Cave of Spleen; her gifts of a bag of bad temper and vial of sorrow; Umbriel's spilling of the bag over Belinda and Thalestris; the consequences, Sir Plume as Belinda's champion; Umbriel's breaking of the vial over Belinda; her speech of grief.
Canto five: Clarissa's intervention; her council of good humour; its failure; the final battle; the loss of the lock; its transformation into a star; closing advice and praise for Belinda.
Canto ONE
What dire Offence from am'rous Causes springs,
What mighty Contests rise from trivial Things,
I sing - This Verse to C---, Muse! is due:
This, ev'n Belinda may vouchsafe to view:
5 Slight is the Subject, but not so the Praise,
If She inspire, and He approve my Lays.
Say what strange Motive, Goddess! cou'd compel
A well-bred Lord t'assault a gentle Belle?
Oh say what stranger Cause, yet unexplor'd,
10 Cou'd make a gentle Belle reject a Lord?
And dwells such Rage in softest Bosoms then?
And lodge such daring Souls in Little Men?
Sol thro' white Curtains shot a tim'rous Ray,
And op'd those Eyes that must eclipse the Day;
15 Now Lapdogs give themselves the rowzing Shake,
And sleepless Lovers, just at Twelve, awake:
Thrice rung the Bell, the Slipper knock'd the Ground,
And the press'd Watch return'd a silver Sound.
Belinda still her downy Pillow prest,
20 Her Guardian Sylph prolong'd the balmy Rest.
'Twas he had summon'd to her silent Bed
The Morning-Dream that hover'd o'er her Head.
A Youth more glitt'ring than a Birth-night Beau,
(That ev'n in Slumber caus'd her Cheek to glow)
25 Seem'd to her Ear his winning Lips to lay,
And thus in Whispers said, or seem'd to say:
“Fairest of Mortals, thou distinguish'd Care
Of thousand bright Inhabitants of Air!
If e'er one Vision touch'd thy infant Thought,
30 Of all the Nurse and all the Priest have taught,
Of airy Elves by Moonlight Shadows seen,
The silver Token, and the circled Green,
Or Virgins visited by Angel-Pow'rs,
With Golden Crowns and Wreaths of heav'nly Flowers,
35 Hear and believe! thy own Importance know,
Nor bound thy narrow Views to Things below.
Some secret Truths from Learned Pride conceal'd,
To Maids alone and Children are reveal'd:
What tho' no Credit doubting Wits may give?
40 The Fair and Innocent shall still believe.
Know then, unnumbered Spirits round thee fly,
The light Militia of the lower Sky;
These, tho' unseen, are ever on the Wing,
Hang o'er the Box, and hover round the Ring.
45 Think what an Equipage thou hast in Air,
And view with scorn Two Pages and a Chair.
As now your own, our Beings were of old,
And once inclos'd in Woman's beauteous Mold;
Thence, by a soft Transition, we repair
50 From earthly Vehicles to these of Air.
Think not, when Woman's transient Breath is fled,
That all her Vanities at once are dead:
Succeeding Vanities she still regards,
And tho' she plays no more, o'erlooks the Cards.
55 Her Joy in gilded Chariots, when alive,
And Love of Ombre, after Death survive.
For when the Fair in all their Pride expire,
To their first Elements the Souls retire:
The Sprights of fiery Termagants in Flame
60 Mount up, and take a Salamander's Name.
Soft yielding Minds to Water glide away,
And sip with Nymphs, their Elemental Tea.
The graver Prude sinks downward to a Gnome,
In search of Mischief still on Earth to roam.
65 The light Coquettes in Sylphs aloft repair,
And sport and flutter in the Fields of Air.
“Know farther yet; Whoever fair and chaste
Rejects Mankind, is by some Sylph embrac'd:
For Spirits, freed from mortal Laws, with ease
70 Assume what Sexes and what Shapes they please.
What guards the Purity of melting Maids,
In Courtly Balls, and Midnight Masquerades,
Safe from the treach'rous Friend, and daring Spark,
The Glance by Day, the Whisper in the Dark;
When kind Occasion prompts their warm Desires,
When Musick softens, and when Dancing fires?
'Tis but their Sylph, the wise Celestials know,
Tho' Honour is the Word with Men below.
Some Nymphs there are, too conscious of their Face,
80 For Life predestin'd to the Gnomes Embrace.
These swell their Prospects and exalt their Pride,
When Offers are disdain'd, and Love deny'd:
Then gay Ideas crowd the vacant Brain;
While Peers and Dukes, and all their sweeping Train,
And Garters, Stars, and Coronets appear,
And in soft Sounds, `Your Grace' salutes their Ear.
'Tis these that early taint the Female Soul,
Instruct the Eyes of young Coquettes to roll,
Teach Infants Cheeks a bidden Blush to know,
90 And little Hearts to flutter at a Beau.
“Oft when the World imagine Women stray,
The Sylphs thro' mystick Mazes guide their Way,
Thro' all the giddy Circle they pursue,
And old Impertinence expel by new.
95 What tender Maid but must a Victim fall
To one Man's Treat, but for another's Ball?
When Florio speaks, what Virgin could withstand,
If gentle Damon did not squeeze her Hand?
With varying Vanities, from ev'ry Part,
100 They shift the moving Toyshop of their Heart;
Where Wigs with Wigs, with Sword-knots Sword-knots strive,
Beaus banish Beaus, and Coaches Coaches drive.
This erring Mortals Levity may call,
Oh blind to Truth! the Sylphs contrive it all.
105 “Of these am I, who thy Protection claim,
A watchful Sprite, and Ariel is my Name.
Late, as I rang'd the Crystal Wilds of Air,
In the clear Mirror of thy ruling Star
I saw, alas! some dread Event impend,
110 E're to the Main this Morning Sun descend.
But Heav'n reveals not what, or how, or where:
Warn'd by thy Sylph, oh Pious Maid beware!
This to disclose is all thy Guardian can.
Beware of all, but most beware of Man!”
115 He said; when Shock, who thought she slept too long,
Leapt up, and wak'd his Mistress with his Tongue.
'Twas then Belinda, if Report say true,
Thy Eyes first open'd on a Billet-doux.
Wounds, Charms, and Ardors, were no sooner read,
120 But all the Vision vanish'd from thy Head.
And now, unveil'd, the Toilet stands display'd,
Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid.
First, rob'd in White, the Nymph intent adores
With Head uncover'd, the cosmetic Pow'rs.
125 A heav'nly Image in the Glass appears,
To that she bends, to that her Eyes she rears;
Th' inferior Priestess, at her Altar's side,
Trembling, begins the sacred Rites of Pride.
Unnumber'd Treasures ope at once, and here
130 The various Off'rings of the World appear;
From each she nicely culls with curious Toil,
And decks the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil.
This Casket India's glowing Gems unlocks,
And all Arabia breathes from yonder Box.
135 The Tortoise here and Elephant unite,
Transform'd to Combs, the speckled and the white.
Here Files of Pins extend their shining Rows,
Puffs, Powders, Patches, Bibles, Billet-doux.
Now awful Beauty puts on all its Arms;
140 The Fair each moment rises in her Charms,
Repairs her Smiles, awakens ev'ry Grace,
And calls forth all the Wonders of her Face;
Sees by Degrees a purer Blush arise,
And keener Lightnings quicken in her Eyes.
145 The busy Sylphs surround their darling Care;
These set the Head, and those divide the Hair,
Some fold the Sleeve, while others plait the Gown;
And Betty's prais'd for Labours not her own.
Canto TWO
Not with more Glories, in th' Etherial Plain,
The Sun first rises o'er the purpled Main,
Than issuing forth, the Rival of his Beams
Launch'd on the Bosom of the Silver Thames.
5 Fair Nymphs, and well-drest Youths around her shone,
But ev'ry Eye was fix'd on her alone.
On her white Breast a sparkling Cross she wore,
Which Jews might kiss, and Infidels adore.
Her lively Looks a sprightly Mind disclose,
10 Quick as her Eyes, and as unfix'd as those:
Favours to none, to all she Smiles extends,
Oft she rejects, but never once offends.
Bright as the Sun, her Eyes the Gazers strike,
And, like the sun, they shine on all alike.
15 Yet graceful Ease, and Sweetness void of Pride,
Might hide her Faults, if Belles had faults to hide:
If to her share some Female Errors fall,
Look on her Face, and you'll forget 'em all.
This Nymph, to the Destruction of Mankind,
20 Nourish'd two Locks, which graceful hung behind
In equal Curls, and well conspir'd to deck
With shining Ringlets her smooth Iv'ry Neck.
Love in these Labyrinths his Slaves detains,
And mighty Hearts are held in slender Chains.
25 With hairy Springes we the Birds betray,
Slight Lines of Hair surprize the Finny Prey,
Fair Tresses Man's Imperial Race insnare,
And Beauty draws us with a single Hair.
Th' Adventrous Baron the bright Locks admir'd,
30 He saw, he wish'd, and to the Prize aspir'd:
Resolv'd to win, he meditates the way,
By Force to ravish, or by Fraud betray;
For when Success a Lover's Toil attends,
Few ask, if Fraud or Force attain'd his Ends.
35 For this, e're Phoebus rose, he had implor'd
Propitious Heav'n, and ev'ry Pow'r ador'd,
But chiefly Love - to Love an Altar built,
Of twelve vast French Romances, neatly gilt.
There lay three Garters, half a Pair of Gloves;
40 And all the Trophies of his former Loves.
With tender Billet-doux he lights the Pyre,
And breathes three am'rous Sighs to raise the Fire.
Then prostrate falls, and begs with ardent Eyes
Soon to obtain, and long possess the Prize:
45 The Pow'rs gave Ear, and granted half his Pray'r,
The rest, the Winds dispers'd in empty Air.
But now secure the painted Vessel glides,
The Sun-beams trembling on the floating Tydes,
While melting Musick steals upon the Sky,
50 And soften'd Sounds along the Waters die.
Smooth flow the Waves, the Zephyrs gently play
Belinda smil'd, and all the World was gay.
All but the Sylph - With careful Thoughts opprest,
Th' impending Woe sate heavy on his Breast.
55 He summons strait his Denizens of Air;
The lucid Squadrons round the Sails repair:
Soft o'er the Shrouds Aerial Whispers breathe,
That seem'd but Zephyrs to the Train beneath.
Some to the Sun their Insect-Wings unfold,
60 Waft on the Breeze, or sink in Clouds of Gold.
Transparent Forms, too fine for mortal Sight,
Their fluid Bodies half dissolv'd in Light.
Loose to the Wind their airy Garments flew,
Thin glitt'ring Textures of the filmy Dew;
65 Dipt in the richest Tincture of the Skies,
Where Light disports in ever-mingling Dies,
While ev'ry Beam new transient Colours flings,
Colours that change whene'er they wave their Wings.
Amid the Circle, on the gilded Mast,
70 Superior by the Head, was Ariel plac'd;
His Purple Pinions opening to the Sun,
He rais'd his Azure Wand, and thus begun.
“Ye Sylphs and Sylphids, to your Chief give Ear!
Fays, Fairies, Genii, Elves, and Daemons hear!
75 Ye know the Spheres and various Tasks assign'd,
By Laws Eternal, to th' Aërial Kind.
Some in the Fields of purest Æther play,
And bask and whiten in the Blaze of Day.
Some guide the Course of wandring Orbs on high,
80 Or roll the Planets thro' the boundless Sky.
Some less refin'd, beneath the Moon's pale Light
Hover, and catch the shooting stars by Night;
Or suck the Mists in grosser Air below,
Or dip their Pinions in the painted Bow,
85 Or brew fierce Tempests on the wintry Main,
Or o'er the Glebe distill the kindly Rain.
Others on Earth o'er human Race preside,
Watch all their Ways, and all their Actions guide:
Of these the Chief the Care of Nations own,
90 And guard with Arms Divine the British Throne.
“Our humbler Province is to tend the Fair,
Not a less pleasing, tho' less glorious Care.
To save the Powder from too rude a Gale,
Nor let th' imprison'd Essences exhale,
95 To draw fresh Colours from the vernal Flow'rs,
To steal from Rainbows ere they drop in Show'rs
A brighter Wash; to curl their waving Hairs,
Assist their Blushes, and inspire their Airs;
Nay oft, in Dreams, Invention we bestow,
100 To change a Flounce, or add a Furbelo.
“This Day, black Omens threat the brightest Fair
That e'er deserv'd a watchful Spirit's Care;
Some dire Disaster, or by Force, or Slight,
But what, or where, the Fates have wrapt in Night.
105 Whether the Nymph shall break Diana's Law,
Or some frail China Jar receive a Flaw,
Or stain her Honour, or her new Brocade,
Forget her Pray'rs, or miss a Masquerade,
Or lose her Heart, or Necklace, at a Ball;
110 Or whether Heav'n has doom'd that Shock must fall.
Haste then ye Spirits! to your Charge repair;
The flutt'ring Fan be Zephyretta's Care;
The Drops to thee, Brillante, we consign;
And Momentilla, let the Watch be thine;
115 Do thou, Crispissa, tend her fav'rite Lock;
Ariel himself shall be the Guard of Shock.
To Fifty chosen Sylphs, of special Note,
We trust th' important Charge, the Petticoat.
Oft have we known that sev'nfold Fence to fail;
120 Tho' stiff with Hoops, and arm'd with Ribs of Whale.
Form a strong Line about the Silver Bound,
And guard the wide Circumference around.
“Whatever spirit, careless of his Charge,
His Post neglects, or leaves the Fair at large,
125 Shall feel sharp Vengeance soon o'ertake his Sins,
Be stopt in Vials, or transfixt with Pins.
Or plung'd in Lakes of bitter Washes lie,
Or wedg'd whole Ages in a Bodkin's Eye:
Gums and Pomatums shall his Flight restrain,
130 While clog'd he beats his silken Wings in vain;
Or Alum-Stypticks with contracting Power
Shrink his thin Essence like a rivell'd Flower.
Or as Ixion fix'd, the Wretch shall feel
The giddy Motion of the whirling Mill,
135 In Fumes of burning Chocolate shall glow,
And tremble at the Sea that froaths below!”
He spoke; the Spirits from the Sails descend;
Some, Orb in Orb, around the Nymph extend,
Some thrid the mazy Ringlets of her Hair,
140 Some hang upon the Pendants of her Ear;
With beating Hearts the dire Event they wait,
Anxious, and trembling for the Birth of Fate.
The first version of The Rape of the Lock was written by Pope in 1711, at the request of his friend John Caryll, in an attempt to heal the quarrel which had arisen between two Catholic families. The cause of the quarrel was the cutting of a lock of Arabella Fermor's hair by Robert, Lord Petre.
The original poem was in two cantos. In 1714, Pope published an enlarged version in five cantos, with references to the supernatural world of sylphs and gnomes included for the first time, and in 1717, he added Clarissa's speech in Canto V. By its final version the poem had grown from 234 lines to 794 lines.
The Rape of the Lock is a mock-epic or, alternatively, a mock-heroic poem. An epic is a long narrative poem which deals with great characters and great actions, following certain conventions and employing an elevated style. The mock-epic applies the conventions and the style of the epic to trivial characters and trivial actions. This allows the poet to place the pettiness of his society in ludicrous contrast with the heroism of a former age.
The epics most referred to in The Rape o f the Lock are Homer's Iliad, which is about the consequences of Achilles' wrath, and Virgil's Aeneid, about Aeneas' adventures between leaving Troy and establishing the city of Rome. Pope includes a great number of allusions to specific lines and phrases from these poems in famous English translations, as well as references to larger scenes, descriptions and incidents. The policy of the present editors has been to note only some of the more important of the local allusions. Greater detail is provided by Geoffrey Tillotson in the second volume of the Twickenham edition, to which we must record our debt.
The poem is written in heroic couplets, that is, in rhymed pairs of regular iambic pentameters. Each line has a caesura (a pause), and Pope relieves the potential monotony of the heroic couplet by deftly varying the position of the caesura. See, for example, Canto I,125-32, with the caesuras marked here by //:
A heavenly image // in the glass appears,
To that she bends, // to that her eyes she rears;
The inferior priestess, // at her altar's side,
Trembling // begins the sacred rites of pride.
Unnumbered treasures ope at once, // and here
The various offerings // of the world appear.
From each // she nicely culls (/) with curious toil,
And decks the goddess // with the glittering spoil.
Notes
Canto One
[l. 1-3] What dire offence ... I sing: i.e. I sing of the dire offences which spring from amorous causes and of the mighty contests which rise from trivial things. Pope begins his poem with the conventional epic 'proposition', or statement of subject. Dryden's translation of the Aeneid begins in similar fashion, 'Arms, and the man I sing'. The delay of 'I sing' until the third line and the unnatural word order of object-subject-verb are heightening devices. Compare Milton, Paradise Lost, lines 1-6.
[l. 3] Caryll: John Caryll, Pope's friend, who urged him to write the poem. The verse, the poem, is due to him in the sense that he initiated it; Muse a goddess of poetry. In Greek mythology, the nine muses were sister goddesses, each responsible for one area of learning or the arts: epic, history, mime, music, dance, choral poetry, tragedy, comedy and astronomy. Pope's 'muse' is a kind of composite goddess. In addressing her, he is imitating the epic convention of invoking the muse.
[l. 5-6] Slight is the subject ... lays: anticipating and answering objections that his poem is too trivial to be considered seriously; lays verses; Slight is the subject Pope alludes to book four of Virgil's Georgics (Dryden's translation): 'Slight is the subject, but the praise not small / If Heaven assist and Phoebus hear my call.'
[l. 7] goddess: i.e. his muse; Say what ... compel The poet asks the muse to reveal the answer to his question. There is the epic implication that the muse has access to the truth, whilst a mere poet without the muse's aid does not.
[l. 8] A well-bred lord ... belle: i.e. explain why Lord Petre should have assaulted (cut the lock of) Arabella Fermor.
[l. 11] tasks so bold: mock-heroic heightening. Neither Lord Petre's 'rape' of the lock nor Pope's versifying of it is a bold task; little men Both Pope and Lord Petre were short.
[l. 13] Sol: the sun.
[l. 14] those eyes ... eclipse the day: Belinda's eyes are extravagantly praised as superior to the sun.
[l. 15] lapdogs: a fashionable possession.
[l.16] And sleepless lovers ... awake: anticlimax. The lovers' boast of being kept awake by their passion is exposed as false by the fact that they have slept until midday.
[l. 17] Thrice ... ground: The bell and slipper are means of calling a servant. The triple repetition is an epic convention. See Aeneid, bk 4 (Dryden's translation): 'Thrice Dido tried to raise her drooping head, And fainting thrice, fell grovelling on the bed.'
[l. 18] the pressed watch: The repeater watch, fashionable in the early eighteenth century, chimed the hour and the quarter when a pin was pressed. [a type of watch quite common among the wealthier in the eighteenth century, in which a pressure upon the stem would cause the watch to strike again the last hour]
[l. 19] Belinda still ... pressed: She has fallen back to sleep.
[l. 20] Her guardian sylph: Ariel (see i, 106). This introduces the supernatural world, an essential element in the epic, sometimes referred to by the word 'machinery' (see Pope's dedication). The supernatural in The Rage of the Lock corresponds to the natural world of the poem in being light and trivial, just as the natural world of war and heroism in the genuine epic is matched by martial and heroic gods and goddesses.
[l. 21-2] 'Twas he ... head: Ariel has called up a dream so that he can warn Belinda of the impending attack on her lock.
[l. 23] birth-night beau: Courtiers dressed in their best clothes for the king's birthday.
[l. 27] care: object of care, charge.
[l. 29] infant thought: Ariel goes on to catalogue some of the beliefs which Belinda might have held in childhood, and he uses these beliefs to persuade her to accept the kind of supernatural realm he represents. See i, 35, 'Hear and believe'.
[l. 30] nurse ... priest: i.e. those responsible for passing on superstitions to children.
[l. 31ff] elves ... seen, etc.: These few lines give a flash of “romantic” nature that is most unusual in Pope.
[l. 32] silver token: A number of country superstitions mention the silver coins which fairies are supposed to leave behind them (surviving today in the 'tooth fairy' which leaves a coin for a milk tooth); circled green rings of bright green grass. According to folklore, these rings (actually caused by the spores of fungi) mark the circles in which the fairies have danced.
[l. 33-4] Or virgins ... heav'nly flowers: the visions ascribed to virgin saints by popular Roman Catholic mythology. Arabella Fermor, the model for Belinda, was a Catholic, and Pope gives Belinda a distinctively Catholic imagination. He makes joking reference to this in his mock Key to the Lock where he argues the poem has 'a tendency to Popery, which is secretly insinuated throughout the whole'.
[l. 36] bound: limit.
[l. 38] To maids ... revealed: 'Thou hast hid these things from the wise and the prudent, and hast delivered them unto babes' (Matthew 11: 25). As well as of this passage Pope seems to be thinking of the popular Catholic mythology which gave special status to virgins.
[l. 39] doubting wits: Scepticism about some of the tenets of Christianity became increasingly common among intellectuals, 'wits', in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The line can be paraphrased 'what does it matter if sceptics do not believe?' See Rochester's Satyr.
[l. 37-40] Some secret truths ... believe: Pope plays upon the commonplace that the innocent may possess an insight into divine matters which is denied to the wise. The 'revelation' here comes ironically through Belinda's knowledge of coquetry.
[l. 42] light militia: Ariel represents the spirits as congregating in military formation; lower sky The sylphs occupy a relatively unimportant area of the heavens.
[l. 44] box: box at the theatre; Ring a fashionable meeting-place in Hyde Park.
[l. 45] equipage: carriage, horses and attendant footmen.
[l. 46] chair: sedan chair: an enclosed seat carried on two parallel poles by two bearers, one at the front and one at the back.
[l. 47-8] As now ... beauteous mould: Ariel explains the origins of the sylphs, i.e. that mortal beauties like Belinda turn into these spirits after death.
[l. 49] Thence: from there; repair go.
[l. 50] vehicles: a fad word among certain thinkers (Platonists) for the material embodiment of something or the material habitation of a spirit. Pope puns on 'vehicle' meaning the female form as the 'home' of a potential sylph's spirit, and 'vehicle' meaning equipage.
[l. 52] vanities: both the unprofitable pastimes of society women like Belinda and their high opinion of their own beauty.
[l. 54] And though ... cards: i.e. although a woman can no longer play at cards after death, she watches in spirit form the hands of living players.
[l. 55] chariots: carriages; also, formerly and in epic, military vehicles.
[l. 56] ombre: a popular card game, played by Belinda against the baron in Canto III.
[l. 58] first elements: Traditionally the four elements were earth, air, fire and water. Each element provided the essential substance of particular classes of being, and each class of being found its most natural surroundings in the element which formed it. (Hence the saying, 'to be in one's element'.) Thus, Pope's `fiery termagants' return after death to fire, his 'yielding minds' to water, his heavy 'prudes' to earth, and his 'light coquettes' to air.
[l. 59] sprites: souls, spirits; termagants bad-tempered women. [Termagant was originally a supposed deity of the Saracens. In the morality plays, in which Termagant appeared, he was always represented by a violent, brawling person. Hence the term eventually was applied to any brawling person, and particularly to a scolding, shrewish, fiery woman.]
[l. 60] salamander: lizard-like animal supposed to live in fire. Pope's four classes of supernatural being are salamanders, nymphs (i, 62), gnomes (i, 63) and sylphs (i, 65). He borrowed these terms from the Rosicrucian philosophy, a system of belief which, followed as it was by only a small number of people and those few widely regarded as eccentrics, was marginal and disreputable.
[l. 63] gnome: A prudish gnome descends to the Cave of Spleen in search of trouble in Canto IV.
[l. 65] coquette: a woman who uses beauty and artful behaviour to attract men, with no intention of returning or satisfying any feeling she may arouse. A coquette herself, Belinda is guarded by sylphs, the spirits into which coquettes change after death.
[l. 66] fields of air: a phrase from Dryden's translation of the Aeneid.
[l. 67-8] Know farther ... embraced: Rosicrucianism included the notion of physical relationships between spirits and mortals (hinted at in the dedication). In the phrase 'fair and chaste', Pope is referring back to the earlier idea that pious virgins are given special visions. Belinda's coquetry is ironically called chastity and the reward for chastity is embraces.
[l. 70] Assume what sexes: the traditional idea that spirits can take on the form of either sex. Here, Ariel, the spirit of some dead female coquette, is appearing to Belinda as a man.
[l. 71] melting: being softened by compassion or love, or sweating excessively.
[l. 72] masquerades: fancy-dress balls at which the participants wore masks. Masquerades were often associated with uninhibited behaviour.
[l. 73] safe: i.e. 'What guards...safe' (i, 71-3); the treacherous friend here, the friend who spreads gossip; spark a contemptuous term for a showy man about town.
[l. 74] The glance ... dark: The glance is the licentious glance of the spark, the whisper the malicious tale of the gossip.
[l. 75] occasion: opportunity.
[l. 76] fires: used as a verb. The dance has fired the blood of the melting maids.
[l. 77-8] 'Tis but ... men below: Epic writers often draw the distinction between the names conferred by men and those conferred by gods. The idea is that supernatural beings (`the wise celestials') recognise that coquettes are protected by their sylphs, while ordinary mortals believe wrongly that it is honour which protects them.
[l. 79] nymphs: Demi-goddesses whose homes were in rivers and lakes; figuratively, young and beautiful women; too conscious of their face too aware of their own beauty.
[l. 80] gnomes' embrace: Those women who set so much store by their beauty that they refuse all suitors will eventually become ill-tempered and prudish old maids.
[l. 81] these: i.e. the gnomes; prospects imagined possibilities, ambitions.
[l. 82] offers: marriage proposals.
[l. 83] gay ideas: showy images, the nymphs' ambitious dreams.
[l. 84] sweeping train: trailing robes,
[l. 85] garters ... coronets: insignia of noble rank.
[l. 86] Your Grace: form of address for a duke or a duchess. The thought of being addressed as a duchess is one of the 'gay ideas' which crowd the mind of the young woman who sets too much store by her own beauty.
[l. 87] early: early in life.
[l. 89] infant-cheeks: Women learn the art of coquetry very early; bidden blush The blush is 'bidden' in the sense that it is made to come, i.e. by rouge.
[l. 92] mystic: esoteric, occult. The sylphs are supernatural.
[l. 93] they pursue: i.e. either the sylphs follow the nymphs or the nymphs follow circles.
[l. 94] impertinence: trifle. The idea is that the sylphs protect women by introducing them to a new temptation just as they are about to fall for an existing one. The entire passage (i, 91-104) is concerned with the changeableness of women.
[l. 96] treat: entertainment with food; ball The couplet might be paraphrased: what tender maid could avoid being seduced by the treat of one man if it were not for the ball of another?
[l. 97-9] Florio & Damon: conventional names for idealised pastoral lovers.
[l. 99] vanities: see note to i, 52.
[l. 100] moving: unstable; toyshop a shop selling fans, laces and other trinkets.
[l. 101] sword-knots: ribbons tied to the hilt of the sword for decoration. Pope assumes that young women will be attracted by these.
[l. 102] coaches coaches drive: i.e. coaches drive out coaches. A fresh interest in a new coach will drive out the existing interest in an old one from a woman's changeable heart.
[l. 103-4] This erring mortals ... it all: again the epic contrast between the perspectives of gods and of men. See i, 77-8 and note.
[l. 105] thy protection claim: claim the right to protect you.
[l. 106] sprite: spirit.
[l. 107] crystal wilds: Pope refers to the notion, already exploded in his day, that the sun, the moon and the stars are faced to enormous crystal spheres which rotate around a stationary earth. Ariel has been spending his time among the crystal spheres.
[l. 108] clear mirror ... star: Pope added a note to the effect that the phrase 'clear mirror' was 'the language of the Platonists'. The mirror is clear because it is celestial; earthly mirrors and images are cloudy and obscure. The sense is simply that the 'clear mirror' of Belinda's 'ruling star' (i.e, the star which guides her fate) shows precisely and truly what will happen to her.
[l. 109] impend: to be imminent, about to happen; I saw ... impend i.e. I saw a dreadful imminent event.
[l. 110] main: ocean.
[l. 112] Warned ... beware: This kind of warning is another epic device; pious ironic.
[l. 115] Shock: both the name of Belinda's dog and that of its breed. The shock, or shough, was a fashionable lapdog.
[l. 117-18] billet-doux: a love letter, usually written in extravagant language; 'Twos then ... a billet-doux There is some ambiguity in the couplet. It could mean either (1) 'it was only at that point that your eyes opened and fell upon a love letter', or (2) 'it was at that point that your eyes opened and saw, for the first time ever, a love letter' . The second reading appears the more sensible because of the clause 'if report say true'. Gossip (report) would hardly be likely to consider the moment of waking, although it might well be concerned with the receipt of a first love letter. However, if that reading is correct, gossip must be mistaken; Belinda has other love letters on her dressing table (i, 138).
[l.119] wounds, charms, and ardours: reproducing the extravagant contents of the letter.
[l. 120] the vision: i.e. of Ariel. The joke is that the earthly love letter distracts Belinda from her heavenly vision of the sylph.
[l. 121] toilet: dressing table.
[l. 122] silver vase: the containers of Belinda's cosmetics, and implicitly the sacred vessels of the mass (see below); mystic order an order which pertains to the religious mysteries. Pope goes on to describe the whole process of applying Belinda's make-up in mock religious terms. The description recalls the sacrifices and religious ceremonies of epic poems, and also the Catholic mass. The device makes a satirical point about Pope's society's worship of female beauty.
[l. 123] First, robed ... adores: Belinda, dressed in a white dressing gown, is the priestess adoring the deity which appears in the mirror, that is, her own reflection. White vestments are worn in the Catholic Church on the feasts of confessors and virgins.
[l. 124] head uncovered: Pope's ironic Key to the Lock refers us to the bare-headedness of the Catholic priest.
[l. 125] A heavenly image: her reflection, the object of worship.
[i; 126] To that ... rears: reminiscent of the Catholic priest adoring the host.
[l. 127] The inferior priestess: Belinda's maid. Actually helping Belinda with her make-up, she becomes in Pope's description an assistant priestess, helping with the rites.
[l. I30] The various ... appear: The various items on Belinda's dressing table have been imported from all over the world. The international trade in superfluous luxury items which Pope hints at here was a relatively new phenomenon, and one much attacked by moralists (see v,11).
[l. 131] culls: gathers; curious careful and skilful.
[l. 132] decks the goddess: the maid is presented as dressing the image in the mirror.
[l. 134] Arabia: famous for its perfumes.
[l. 135] The tortoise ... unite: Belinda's comb has a tortoise-shell spine and ivory teeth. The description of an everyday object, the comb, is mockingly heightened.
[l. 137] files: rows, suggestive of military order. The pins are for arranging clothing.
[l. 138] patches: small pieces of black cloth worn by fashionable women on the face; bibles Bibles printed in small format were fashionable accessories. Bibles, or at least mass books, belong on the Catholic altar, but their presence on the dressing table alongside the other items listed is incongruous and indicative of Belinda's confused system of values.
[l. 139] awful: inspiring awe; beauty ... arms Pope shifts from imitating one element of the epic, the religious rite, to imitating another, the arming of the hero. Belinda's face-painting, hair-setting and dressing are imagined in terms of a warrior being clothed in armour for the battle.
[l. 143] a purer blush: a blush created by cosmetics. `Purer is ironic.
[l. 144] keener lightnings: The eyes of a beautiful woman were conventionally praised as 'flashing lightning'. The lightnings in Belinda's eyes become 'keener' because she has applied eye make-up; quicken become animated, vigorous.
[l. 145] The busy ... care: Pope supplied a note directing the reader to the ancient traditions which record fallen angels becoming 'amorous of women'.
[l. 146] set the head: build the high tower, or head, into which fashionable women piled their hair.
[l. 147] plait: arrange in folds.
[l. 148] Betty: a stock name for a maid; not her own The effects which seem to be the results of the maid's work are really the results of the sylphs'.
Canto Two
[l. 1] th'etherial plane: In traditional astronomy the space above the moon was thought to be filled by ether. 'Plane' is here used to mean an open space. Thus, 'the plane of ether', the realm of the sun.
[l. 2] purpled: bright, made bright (by the rising sun) - a Latinate usage; main ocean, sea.
[l. 3] issuing forth: coming out, setting off; his beams the sun's beams: compare i, 14.
[l. 4] Launched: The Thames was a busy thoroughfare; bosom poetical term for the surface of a river or lake.
[l. 1-4] Not with ... Thames: The sun does not rise in the heavens to light the sea with any more glory than his rival (Belinda) launched herself onto the Thames.
[l. 5] Fair: beautiful; nymphs young women (see note to i, 75).
[l. 7] sparkling cross: The decorated cross which Belinda wears again reminds readers of her Catholicism.
[l. 8] infidels: non-believers, specifically Muslims; Which Jews ... adore Belinda's beauty overcomes the scruples of non-believers towards the cross. The word 'adore' again suggests Catholicism, since the meditation upon, and veneration of, holy images belong in the Catholic tradition.
[l. 10] quick: animated, moving; unfixed Her mind, like her eyes, passes rapidly from object to object.
[l. 11] favours: indulgences, possibly with the connotation of sexual indulgences.
[l. 12] Oft she ... offends: Her behaviour is that of the perfect society coquette.
[l. 13] Bright as the sun: another comparison of Belinda's eyes with the sun.
[l. 14] shine on all alike: Compare Matthew 5: 45: 'He maketh His sun to shine on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust.'
[l. 15] ease: Social ease was a quality highly regarded by Pope (see Arbuthnot, 196); void of without.
[l. 16] her faults: for example, her unfixed mind and the obvious vanity; if belles ironically mimicking the social convention which forbade criticism of women.
[l. 18] Look on ... them all: Flattering lines such as this ensured that Arabella Fermor, the model for Belinda, was at fast quite proud of her place in the Rape.
[l. 19] destruction of mankind: conventional overstatement.
[l. 20] Nourished: The word had the specific meaning of 'to allow hair to grow'; two locks Her hair was tied up, with two thick ringlets allowed to hang down from the mass.
[l. 21] conspired: in the sense of contrived; deck to cover, to clothe.
[l. 23] labyrinths: The notion of female physical attributes as forming traps and chains for men was a common one. Compare Richard Lovelace's To Althea, From Prison (lines 5-6): 'When I lie tangled in her hair, And fettered to her eye.'
[l. 25] springes: snares or traps for catching small animals and birds. Horse hair was used in the construction of them; betray used here in the sense of trap.
[l. 26] finny prey: fish - sometimes caught with line only one hair thick.
[l. 27] tresses: long locks of hair; imperial here, domineering and powerful. The sense is that man, even though the stronger sex, can be subdued by female coiffure.
(ii, 29] Th'adventurous Baron: mock-heroic heightening. The Baron is Lord Petre - see introduction.
[l. 30] prize: The word still carried a heavy military association - something won in battle.
[l. 31] meditates: plans.
[l. 32] ravish: to take by violence; force ... fraud a common epic opposition.
[l. 35] this: i.e. success; Phoebus Phoebus/Apollo, the god of the sun. The Baron, unlike Belinda (i, 16), has been up since before daybreak.
[l. 36] Propitious: favourably inclined. The epithet implies that the Baron will have success; power divinity.
[l. 37] an altar built: Like Belinda's toilet in the first canto, the Baron's altar recalls the religious ceremonies and sacrifices of the true epic (see note to i, 122).
[l. 38] vast French romances: long and incredible fictions concerning love and battle. The Baron's altar is comically constructed from the possessions of the fashionable, modern lover; gilt gilded, covered with a thin layer of gold; a fashionable way of decorating the edges of the pages. The neatness of the gilding contrasts with the vastness of the books.
[l. 40] trophies: prizes captured in war and kept as a memorial of victory.
[l. 41] billet-doux: love letters (see note to i, 117-18); pyre the pile to be burnt.
[l. 44] prize: i.e. Belinda's lock.
[l. 45] powers: gods and goddesses; gave ear listened; half his prayer i.e. they granted him the quick seizure but not the long possession of the lock. The gods' granting of half a prayer is another epic convention, and one which Pope echoes again at the end of Epistle to a Lady (lines 286-7).
[l. 46] The rest ... empty air: another echo of the epic, as Pope's note indicates. In the Aeneid Arruns prays to Apollo as he throws his javelin at Camilla, with the result that in Dryden's translation (bk 2): 'Apollo heard, and granting half his prayer / Shuffled in winds the rest and tossed in empty air.'
[l. 47] painted vessel: The expression can refer both to the boat and to Belinda, since 'vessel' is sometimes used, especially in a religious context, to mean person or body.
[l. 48] tides: When the Rape was written the Thames was tidal above London.
[l. 49] steals upon: moves stealthily up to; music Presumably a small ensemble accompanies the party on the boat.
[l. 50] die: fade away. Pope may also refer to the cadence of the music, as in Orsino's description of a `strain' which had 'a dying fall' (Twelfth Night, I, i, 4).
[l. 51] zephyrs: Greek gods of the winds; hence, any gentle breeze.
[l. 52] Belinda ... gay: another elegant compliment to Arabella Fermor - see note to ii, 18.
[l. 53] the sylph: i.e. Ariel; careful full of care, anxious.
[l. 54] Th'impending woe: Ariel announces his vision of 'some dread event' in Belinda`s ruling star in the first canto (i, 108-9).
[l. 55] straight: immediately; denizens naturalised aliens, settlers. The sylphs are 'denizens of air' in that they have become inhabitants of the atmosphere after having been coquettes on earth (i, 65).
[l. 56] lucid: having the quality of light; repair move to.
[l. 57] shrouds: large ropes suitable for a sea-going ship rather than this river vessel - mock-heroic heightening.
[l. 58] that seemed but: which seemed only; i.e. the whispers for the sylphs are taken to be breezes by the river party.
[l. 60] waft: float; clouds of gold The idea of gilded clouds at the height of a mast owes more to contemporary painting (which sometimes used cherub-filled clouds for decorative effect) than to real life.
[l. 61] fine: clear, pure, refined.
[l. 63] airy garments flew: Again the image of translucent garments flying in the air owes a good deal to contemporary painting.
[l. 64] Thin, glittering ... dew: Refers to the fine cobwebs, known as gossamers, which can be seen in the grass or floating in the air in spring and summer. These were thought to be formed through the action of the sun on dew.
[l. 65] tinctures: colours, dyes.
[l. 66] disports: plays freely, frolics.
(ii, 68] Colours that change: The changing colours caused by the sylphs reflect the unfixedness of Belinda's mind (ii, 10).
[l. 69] the circle: i.e. of the sylphs gathered round him.
[l. 70] Superior by the head: a head taller. The epic hero generally has the advantage of height.
[l. 71] purple: a royal colour; pinions wings.
[l. 72] azure: bright blue; wand Ariel's wand corresponds to an earthly king's sceptre as a badge of authority.
[l. 73] sylphids female sylphs.
[l. 74) Fays: fairies; genii spirits belonging with a particular person or place; daemons inferior divinities or spirits, not necessarily evil.
[l. 75] spheres: both the spheres of the old astronomy (see note to i,107), and more generally areas of activity. The long list of the various tasks of Ariel's helpers is another epic device.
[l. 77] ether: the gas filling the space above the moon - see note to ii, 1.
[l. 78] blaze of day: living in ether they are exposed to the sun.
[l. 79] orbs: globes; here, stars.
[l. 81] less refined: They are less refined in that they occupy a less pure section of the heavens.
[l. 82] the starts that shoot: comets; athwart across.
[l. 83] grosser: less pure.
[l. 84] painted bow: the rainbow.
[l. 85] main: ocean, sea.
[l. 86] glebe: field; distil let fall in drops, sprinkle.
[l. 89] Of these ... own: The chief of these (spirits who guard the welfare of people - ii, 87-8) take on, or own, the care of nations as their duty. The line alludes to the idea that each nation was assigned a guardian angel.
[l. 91] province: sphere of activity; fair (used as a noun) women.
[l. 92] Not a ... care: The sylphs' job of looking after the likes of Belinda is just as pleasant as the more strenuous activities listed in the previous verse paragraph - another elegant compliment.
[l. 93] powder: face powder; rude rough.
[l. 94] imprisoned essences: the essences of flowers captured in liquids and in jars; i.e. perfumes; exhale evaporate.
[l. 95] vernal: spring; To draw ... flowers refers to the manufacture of paint for the face.
[l. 97] wash: a liquid preparation for hair or skin, here specifically a curling lotion.
[l. 98] Assist their blushes: with rouge - compare i, 89 & 143; airs behaviour, manners, affectations.
[l. 99] invention: inventiveness, new ideas.
[l. 100] flounce: a strip sewed by its upper edge to a dress; furbelow the border of a dress. [frill]
[l. 101] threat: used as a verb, threaten; fair fair one, woman (see ii, 91).
[l. 103] or ... or: either ... or; force or slight echoes the Baron's wish to gain the lock, whether by force or fraud (see ii, 32).
[l. 104] But what ... night: Ariel's vision has told him only of some dreadful doom, disclosing neither the nature nor the scene of it (see i, 111).
[l. 105] Diana's law: Diana, the hunting goddess, was herself a virgin and was accompanied by female virgin attendants. Thus, 'Diana's law' refers to chastity.
[l. 106] Or some ... flaw: Implicitly, Belinda and her fellows are so morally confused that they recognise no difference between the loss of virginity and the cracking of a costly ornament.
[l. 107] brocade: material richly decorated with raised patterns. Since brocade and honour are both objects of 'stain' the sentence gives them equal value, again implying moral confusion. The rhetorical figure by which one word in a sentence (here 'stain') is made to refer to two others ('honour' and `brocade') is called zeugma, and Pope uses it to great effect in the Rape (see also iii, 65-8).
[l. 110] Shock: Belinda's lapdog - see i,115 and note; fall die, commit a misdemeanour.
[l. 111] charge: particular duty; repair go, move.
[l. 112] Zephyretta's: a female form of zephyr, breeze; an appropriate name for the guardian of a fan.
[l. 113] drops: diamonds in the ear; Brillante 'Brilliants' was another word for diamonds; again an appropriately named guardian.
[l. 115] Crispissa: 'To crisp' is to crimp, or to curl into tight rings.
[l. 116] Ariel himself ... Shock: another comic reference to the death of a lapdog as a serious loss - see ii, 110 above, also iii, 158 & iv, 75.
[l. 117-18] To fifty ... the petticoat: The couplet carries a sexual innuendo - if Belinda's petticoat is lost, so too will be her honour.
[l. 119-20] seven-fold fence: Pope describes Belinda's petticoat in terms similar to those used for the epic hero's shield. In the Iliad Vulcan arms Achilles (Pope's translation made after the Rape): 'Its utmost verge a threefold circle bound;/ ... Five ample plates the broad expanse compose.'
[l. 120] hoops: to hold out the skirts; whale whalebone, used for reinforcing dresses.
[l. 121] line: in the military sense of a line of defence; silver bound Belinda's skirts are finished off with a silver border, just as Achilles' shield is rimmed with silver.
[l. 123-36] Whatever spirit ... below: These lines list, in comic fashion, the punishments awaiting negligent sylphs.
[l. 124] fair: the fair one, Belinda; at large at liberty, undefended.
[l. 126] Be stopped ... vials: be shut up in cosmetic bottles (an amusingly fitting punishment for a sylph); pins used for arranging clothes, and present on Belinda's dressing table (i, 134).
[l. 127] Or plunged ... lie: As Satan is plunged in a lake of burning sulphur, transgressing sylphs will be plunged in bitter cosmetics.
[l. 128] bodkin: a large needle used for drawing tapes through hems; another article of the lady's toilet.
[l. 129] gums: resins; here, those used for perfumes; pomatums pomades, scented ointments used for the skin and hair.
[l. 131] alum: a mineral salt; styptics astringent liquids used to close the pores.
[l. 132] rivelled: shrivelled, wrinkled.
[l. 133] Ixion: In Greek mythology Ixion was fastened by Zeus to a burning and continuously turning wheel in punishment for for making love to Juno, wife of Jupiter and queen of the gods.
[l. 134] whirling mill: A stick (known as a molionet or mill) was introduced into the top of a pot of drinking chocolate and used to stir the liquid.
[l. 135] burning chocolate: Pope imagines the erring sylph as tied to the top of the stirring stick (mill) and whirled around above the hot drinking chocolate, scalded by the steam. The punishment echoes the idea of hell as a place where the damned are burnt.
[l. 136] the sea that froths: the drinking chocolate made to froth by the action of the mill.
[l. 138] orb in orb: The spirits arranging themselves in circles recalls Milton's description of the heavenly host before God (Paradise Lost, v, 594-6): 'Thus when in orbs/ Of circuit inexpressible they stood,/ Orb within orb ...'
[l. 139] thrid: threaded; mazy maze-like; here, curly.
[l. 140] pendents of her ear: ear-rings.
[l. 142] birth of fate: can suggest both the birth of Belinda's peculiar destiny (fate), and the giving birth to the future by a personified Fate.
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