BORROWINGS AND CALQUES IN TRANSLATING LSP: SELECTED ASPECTS

Table of contents

Introduction 4

1. Chapter One: The term of the translation 6

1.1 What is translation? 6

1.2 Specialist language 7

1.3 Languages for special purposes 8

1.4 LSP Text as a Knowledge System 10

1.5 Legal English as a technical language 10

2. Chapter Two: The term as a unit of the terminological lexicon 12

2.1 Terms typology 12

2.2 Terms terminology 13

2.2.1 Terminology and Terminography 14

2.2.2 Translation and Terminology 14

2.3 Lexicology and Lexicography 15

2.3.1 The aspect of lexicography 18

2.3.2 Lexical Semantics 19

2.3.3 Phraseology and Etymology 20

2.4 What is a Dictionary? 21

2.5 Glossaries 23

2.6 Calques and Borrowings (loan translation) 23

2.6.1 Cultural Borrowing 26

2.6.2 Intimate Borrowing 26

2.6.3 Dialect Borrowing 27

3. Chapter Three: Art of brewing vocabulary 28

3.1 The objective of compiling Art of brewing vocabulary 28

3.2 Brewing Glossary - Słownik piwowarski 29

3.2.1 Basic Beer Terms- Podstawowe terminy piwowarski 29

3.2.2 Beer Brewing Terms - Terminy piwowarskie (Sztuka warzenia piwa) 34

3.2.3 Beer Tasting Terms - Terminy smaku piwa 43

3.3 Conclusions 49

General Conclusions 51

Bibliography 52

Appendix 1 56

Introduction

Knowledge of general language does not guarantee the ability of good translation of the texts which contain certain terms in National General Language. The terms in specialist language have different meanings than the terms in general language. We need to study all the time. Some of the terms are borrowed from other language or they have got their own proper name.

Translation is characterized by linguistic and cultural divergences between source language and target language. Ways in which words are arranged within the two languages are different from one another, and a term or concept present in the source language text may not exist in the target language. As a result, translators cannot avoid problems of linguistic and cultural untranslatability. Some strategies, as discussed in this paper, include addition of information, deletion of information, and structural adjustment which is called alteration, or transposition, or rank shift. Generally they are employed to produce an accurate, readable, and acceptable translation.

Translators into English from most major languages generally can count on having reasonably good bilingual dictionaries for the general language, and even in many specialized domains such as science, medicine, or law. But most such languages have several million native speakers, often in multiple countries, and often many non-native speakers. Such numbers represent good markets for dictionaries, even specialized ones.

For languages with "only" a few million native speakers, mostly in a single country, the smaller market may limit the making of bilingual dictionaries, especially in specialized domains, and certainly limits where they are sold.

The dictionary was not written in the abstract or with the idea of serving all users rather, it began with definition of typical users and their characteristics. Indeed, characterizing the likely or desired users of a dictionary—and thus their needs so as to try to anticipate and meet them in advance.

Translating can be involve simple translation (transmission) or employment of the art of translating. The former is possible for labelling and, when false cognates or incommensurability of expressions are involved, conceptualization. The art of translating is called for when the expressive function is predominant and the referential function secondary or practically non-existent, as in translating postmodernist fiction, and for texts from very different cultures. The translator's work is related to his own views about truth (ontology and epistemology) and those of his clients.

The aim of my thesis is to prepare simple glossary which help people from brewing industry in their work.

During my course I was given the list of English words connecting with brewing industry. They wanted me to translate them. I decided to use them in my thesis. I divided them into three groups. Basic Beer Terms- Podstawowe terminy piwowarskie, Beer Brewing Terms - Terminy piwowarskie (Sztuka warzenia piwa), Beer Tasting Terms - Terminy smaku piwa. I want to show that we cannot translate all words into Polish and that there are some calques and borrowings.

Chapter One: The term of the translation

1. What is translation?

Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. It is the interpreting of the meaning of a text that communicates the same message in another language. The final product is sometimes called the target text. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts—including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts—in another language and thus making them available to wider readers.

Translation should include context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions and their idioms. Between two languages exist also a simple word-for-word correspondence which is a straightforward mechanical process.

If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore, under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier than it actually is. “Languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and languages do not simply name categories; they articulate their own.” “One of the troublesome problems of translation is the disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and the TL, the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will be.”

The process of translating is a real challenge because of the difference between an SL and a TL and the variation in their cultures make

Webster's New World dictionary defines "to translate" as follows:

1. to move from one place or condition to another; transfer; specif., a) Theol. to convey directly to heaven without death, b) Eccles. to transfer (a bishop) from one see to another; also, to move (a saint's body or remains) from one place of interment to another;

2. to put into the words of a different language;

3. to change into another medium or form to translate ideas into action;

4. to put into different words; rephrase or paraphrase in explanation;

5. to transmit (a telegraphic message) again by means of an automatic relay.

1.2 Specialist language

After the accession of Poland to the European Union we can observe the growing interest with learning of the specialist English.

The work in the international environment demands not only a knowledge of a language general, but also of certain ability of using the trade language. Without this acquaintance specialists in their industries won't line the Euromarket. It is a fact, that the work in foreign companies demands not only a knowledge of a language general. Too little for the anyone wishing to earn more. Using the specialist language in the speech and the writing is a great plus for the employee and for the company which can to boast about the level of somebody's knowledge.

How to learn it in order really to learn? Learning of the specialist language should go hand in hand with teaching general language. It is not possible to forget .. about grammar, correctnesses of saying, of writing, teaching the pronunciation, abilities of understanding the reading and listening comprehensive. It should be simply practiced. But fortunately a good teacher can always join these two important components, general and the specialist language all in one, focusing on the superiority of the specialist language.

It is also possible to go for specialist courses what additionally can support our learning process. In front of it however everybody should fix some purposes for himself/herself. Will I be using this language in the future, what benefits will I have what can I reach more? I am not surprised that there are more pluses than minuses of learning of the language to somebody's work.

To sum up, everything is for people. Consumed with work the manager of the company can always use company routes (every good company offers such for every employees). And he should do it, if only he wants to extend his linguistic ranges. We should not fall behind other foreign partners linguistically, but still develop. Still with this main barrier of taking up work in foreign countries exactly is an ignorance of the technical language. The general language is not spoken about, but about professional. It is worth so invest in ourselves and becoming the real specialist in our field.

There are some types of trade and specialist language: English Business (business English), Legal English (English for lawyers), English for Medical Studies (medical English), English for Academic Purposes (scientific English), English for Science and Technology (English of science and technology), English for Social Sciences (English in social sciences), English for Tourism (English in the tourism), English for Gastronomy (English in the gastronomy), English for Beauty Therapists (English in cosmetology), English for Computer Science (English in the computer science), English Office (English in the office), English for Mechanics (English for mechanics) and so on.

1.3 Languages for special purposes

Languages for special purposes is a particular form of a general language. It describes area of knowledge or of activity as precisely as possible. It can also be identified as a conventional semiotic system which is based on a natural language and characterized by a cognitive function indicated the development of civilization and it serves an instrument of professional work and training.

All special varieties of language can be described in terms of universal inherent in them: “semantic monosemy, synctactic hypotaxis, stylistic (emotional) neutrality and morphological simplification.” Their vocabulary is connected with professional and conventional terms. Special terminologies are registered and standardized in terminological dictionaries.

Languages of special purposes is used by experts communicating within their area of expertise. They are often referred to as occupational varieties. “In European linguistic tradition there are some more terms applied to this sphere of linguistic studies such as registers of speech, language varieties or functional styles. There is much divergence of opinion as regards the proper term and it is related to the general consideration of this linguistic phenomenon - whether it is treated as a scientific discipline, or as a professional area. The term that connects theory and practice and backs the dictum that language is a system of communication which is used by the people of a particular country, seems to be functional styles.” It isidentified as a system of coordinated and interralated language means which has a specific function of communication. “Style is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish members of the same general class”

Language is one of the means of communication and the most important one.

The Longman's Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985) defines the concept of languages or for specific purposes as meaning “languages used for particular and restricted types of communication (…) and which contain lexical, grammatical and other linguistic features which are different from ordinary language.” Furthermore - according to the same dictionary - the concept special languages is defined as “a term used for the varieties of language used in botany, law, nuclear physics or linguistic. The study of special languages includes the study of terminology (…) and register (…).” The register is defined as “a speech variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation (…) or the same interests.”

Any languages system includes an open - ended sequence of sublanguages. Most sublanguages are special languages, which belong to a definite subject field. Any special languages “represents the totality subject of linguistic means used in a limited sphere of communication on a restricted subject in order to enable cognitive work to be done and mutual information to be conveyed by those acting in the said domain.”

1. LSP Text as a Knowledge System

The increasing interest of LSP research in cognitive science has led to a broadening and deepening of its subject-matter, now including the communicative-cognitive procedures of information transfer and mental processing of information at all levels of LSP communication.

“As a consequence of this paradigmatic change, LSP research has been confronted with the comprehensive analysis of knowledge system being transformed by encoding processes into language elements and relations at the textual level. A great number of LSP text analyses have demonstrated that LSP is a regular part of the process of specialist thinking.”

2. Legal English as a technical language

Legal translation is understood as the translation of technical materials within the field of law. Correspondingly, legal language is a distinct language easy to some extent to those familiar with it, but to whom with which are unfamiliar is of certain difficulty. In other words, Legal language is characterised by a specific language and therefore a specific terminology.

We have seen so far that a considerable part of legal English vocabulary is a mixture terms of Latin and French origin. Another noticeable feature of legal English is its technical terminology.“If a word or a phrase is used exclusively by a particular trade or profession or if that profession uses it in a way that differs from its normal meaning and the term has a relatively well-defined sense, it should be considered a technical term”

This reveals that a technical term is an unshared term used exclusively by a specific trade or profession. In other words, specialists in the legal sphere are actually equipped by a distinct language peculiar to ordinary people and highly characterized by a vocabulary of technical nature. Accordingly, Alcaraz & Brian (2002: 17) present a classification of technical vocabulary: purely technical terms and semi-technical terms.

Legal language requires a variety of advanced skills to be present in the translator. First, complete mastery of both source and target languages; second, a good knowledge of the two legal systems involved; third, knowledge of the relevant sub-areas; fourth, an awareness of any other relevant disciplines and subject matter,; fifth, training in the art of translation itself.  It's clear that it's not easy to find such a combination of skills, especially as they are not acquired quickly.

All this reflects the unique nature of legal language. 

Chapter Two: The term as a unit of the terminological lexicon

2.1 Terms typology

The typology of terms is a valuable field of research especially when a few factors are considered:

• Development of the research techniques which are adequate as far as factual material is concerned;

• A clue to establish methodology of learning a certain work or task;

• A basis to establish a general structure as well as repertoire of lexicographic formulas of a terminological dictionary.

Before dividing terms into certain groups it should be mentioned that a concept is a collection of features of a certain object which define the object, and a term is used to refer to the concept. H. Sunoutti (1997) describes it by means of the following diagram.

definition

“Difference between nomens and theoretical terms is based on the difference between objects that can be materially experienced and the ideal objects which are limited to a specific theoretical construction. It may be concluded that the difference is a key to consider further features that specify the nomens and terms as different groups of conventional words.”

2.2 Terms terminology

“Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. Not to be confused with "terms" in colloquial usages, the shortened form of technical terms (or terms of art) which are defined within a discipline or speciality field. The discipline Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture. Terms are always studied in relation to the conceptual system to which they belong and in which they function as depositories of knowledge.

Terminology therefore denotes a more formal discipline which systematically studies the labelling or designating of concepts particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity, through research and analysis of terms in context, for the purpose of documenting and promoting correct usage. This study can be limited to one language or can cover more than one language at the same time (multilingual terminology, bilingual terminology, and so forth) or may focus on studies of terms across fields.

Terminology is not connected to information retrieval in any way but focused on the meaning and conveyance of concepts. "Terms" (i.e. index terms) used in an information retrieval context are not the same as "terms" used in the context of terminology, as they are not always technical terms of art”.

Lexicographers and terminographers often answer diametrically opposite questions. The lexicographer is trying to answer the question “What does this word mean?” and the terminologist is typically facing the problem.

For translators, the importance of understanding theory of terminology is twofold. A theory of terminology explains the behavior of terms. It differs from the behavior of words and proper names. It respects both to knowledge and understanding and to the use of such terms in special or sub-languages. A theory of terminology explains also the difference between word and term formation and, in particular, to define the scope of neology. Theoretical foundation and basic premises of terminology provide a methodology for the practical work of compiling technical glossaries and finding translation equivalents.

2.2.1. Terminology and terminography

Terminology and terminography are very important disciplines for industry and commercial. They are related to lexicology and lexicography, and are concerned with the identification and construction of technical terms. They are also in relation to the real world of technical artefacts. Historically, these fields have developed and they are in general practised separately from lexicology and lexicography, though there is no a priori reason for this.

2.2.2 Translation and Terminology

Translation and terminology function on two different linguistic and cognitive planes. They focus on different areas of language studies. Translating is a fundamentally applied linguistic activity and it concerns with the manipulation of texts. Terminology straddles both theoretical and applied linguistics. It uses texts only as one of a range of source materials in one of its many applications. The difference between translation and terminology is that translators deal with instances of parole (language in use), whereas terminologists may us instances of parole but are essentially concerned with recording facts of langue (language as an abstract system). More specifically, it is important to note the following:

1. Terminology compilation is a static process which consists of identifying, isolating and describing terminological units. Translation is a dynamic process which involves the manipulation of textual substance in one language to create textual substance in another language.

2. Part of the production process in translation consists of matching units of meaning. It usually arises in one culture. Translators generally attempt to match the largest possible units of meaning as they arise in specific text. Terminologists have no interest in temporary and casual collocations of concepts. They are brought into a particular relationship by a writer. Translators work with concepts and terms in context. Terminologists isolate terms from context and fit them into an abstract system of concepts.

3. Translators perform the process of matching textual units with a high degree of intuition. Terminologists always work analytically and describe the results of their analysis in the peculiar text form of glossaries and dictionary entries.

The roles of terminologists and translator are quite different. Bi- or multi- lingual terminologists need some understanding of objectives of translation. Translators need to acquire a basic understanding of terminology and its various applications, and not vice versa.

2.3 Lexicology and Lexicography

Lexicography and lexicology come from the Greek word lexiko. 'Word' or the lexical unit of a language is the common concern of lexicography and lexicology. The etymological meaning of these words speaks for itself the scope of these branches of linguistics. Lexicology is the kind of science of the study of word and lexicography focus on the writing word in some concrete form like a dictionary. These terms are related very closely.

`Word' is a common subject of both lexicology and lexicography. Every word although having its own independent entity is related to others both paradigmatically and syntagmatically. The paradigmatic relations are based on the interdependence of words within the lexical system. The syntagmatic relations show the relation of words in the patterns of arrangement. The vocabulary of a language consists of elements which are related in some way. A `word' has a particular group of sounds, and a particular grammatical function. This unit is semantic, phonological and grammatical.

Lexicology concentrate on a `word' in all these aspects i.e. the patterns of semantic relationship of words as also their phonological, morphological and contextual behaviour. Lexicology studies a word with its combinative possibilities even if it does not occur in isolation. As a result of this the scope of lexicology includes the study of phraseological units and set combinations. Lexicology is a branch of general linguistics and it can be both historical and descriptive, the former dealing with the origin and development of the form and meaning of the lexical units across time and the latter studying the vocabulary of a language as a system at a particular point of time. But there are many areas in lexicology, where one cannot be studied in isolation, without regard to the other.

Lexicological studies has two types: general and special.

General lexicology is concerned with the general features of words common to all languages and it deals with something like universals in language. On the other hand special lexicology focus on the words with reference to one particular language.

Lexicological studies can be also comparative and contrastive. The lexical systems of two languages are studies from a contrastive point of view.

Lexicology fulfills the needs of different branches of applied linguistics. They are lexicography, stylistics, language teaching where language is a social phenomenon. It cannot be divorced from the study of the social system and the development in society. The development and progress in the social, political and technological system is manifest in the vocabulary of a language. New meanings of new words are introduced and added to words and old meanings are dropped out and die out. Lexicology centre on the vocabulary of a language from the sociological points also.

The aim of lexicology is to study the vocabulary of a language as a system. Because the number of units is very large so the treatment of individual units may not claim to be complete. Its goal is systematization in the study as a whole but not completeness as regards individual units. It cannot claim to be a perfectly systematic treatment. In lexicology every entry is treated as an independent problem. Lexicologists present their material in sequence according to their view of the study of vocabulary.

Lexicology provides the theoretical basis of lexicography.

Lexicography also studies the lexicon as lexicology does but "whereas lexicology concentrates more on general properties and features that can be viewed as systematic, lexicography typically has the so to say individuality of each lexical unit in the focus of its interest". Lexicography is defined as the writing or compiling of a lexicon or dictionary, the art or practice of writing dictionaries or the science of methods of compiling dictionaries. Generally speaking lexicography is the science and art of compiling dictionary. “Lexicography studies meanings of dictionary's units their uses”.

Lexicology examines the word as a part of the system whereas in lexicography the word is studied as an individual unit. Lexicography respects the word's meaning and uses it from the practical point of its use by the reader of the dictionary. A word can have different and varied characteristic, all of which may not be needed by a lexicographer who presents the words of the lexical system which is more practically useable in real life situation. The lexicographers arrange words usually in alphabetical order and they mostly guided by the principle of convenience in retrieval of the data. Although, they know the all the semantic details of a lexical unit, they have to take decisions include such features in the definition which might be his own observations.

In lexicology the study of words is objective, governed by the theories of semantics and word formation while in lexicography many a definition become subjective and they are not free from the bias of the dictionary maker.

Lexicology is not language specific, whereas lexicography is more or less language specific in spite of its universal theoretical background. Its theories have no other validation except for practical applicability in the compilation of a dictionary.

Lexicology is more oriented on theory, lexicography is more concerned with concrete application of these theories. “In a certain sense lexicography may be considered a superior discipline to lexicology, for results are more important than intentions and the value of theoretical principles must be estimated according to results".

Terminological lexicon may be described as a collection of the conventional language signs, which reflects the state of the knowledge in a certain field of research. In the context of the presented thesis, terminological lexicon is a collection of terms designating the concepts that evolved in the brewing industry. As beer production dates back to almost 5,000 BC, it may be assumed that firs technolect of brewing evolved in those times as well. Since then enormous changes have taken place with regard to the beer production, mainly in technology, methods and equipment used. While analyzing the terminological lexicon of brewing it may be observed that the terms connected with the primary processes of production and its basic ingredients originated in each language separately. However, the names of the machines or processes implemented into brewing quite recently remain very often in their German or English form. These terms are for instance: boiler and whirpool.

2.3.1 The aspect of lexicography

In the contemporary terminology the name 'term' usually refers to the lexical items which can be contradicted on the basis of appropriate features (contradicted to ordinary words). Therefore, while analyzing lexis for special purposes a few factors should be taken into consideration. First, two classes of terminological items may be differentiated, namely:”nomens and terms.”

Generally speaking a term is usually defined on the basis of stable parameters. “It is a word or a combination of words with a conventionally specified, precisely defined terminological structure, in principle covering one meaning. Terms cannot be interpreted emotionally and they possess system- building abilities. In other words, a term is a precisely defined word or combination of words acting as a unit of specialist vocabulary.”

A term may be a word (simple term) or a multiword expression (complex term) that designates a particular concept within a given subject field. A set of terms within one science is called a terminological unit and constitutes the essential part of the technolect, or in other words a language for specific purposes (LSP).

F. Grucza (1991) uses the following characteristics to define the concept of a term:

"Niezależnie od rodzaju definicji terminu należy pamiętać, iż specyfika terminów polega przede wszystkim na tym, że są one „ narzędziami ludzkiej pracy". Za pomocą terminów człowiek poznaje otaczający go świat, kształtuje jego obraz wpływając w ten sposób na postawę i zachowanie samego człowieka, i wspiera pracę o charakterze produkcyjnym".

As far as brewing technology is concerned, it has its own LSP characterized by a specific terminological lexicon which, in turn, is composed of terms relating to brewing technology. Thus, a brewery term may be defined as a word or combination of words that precisely refers to brewing. Each term has its particular meaning as well as the system meaning.

2.3.2 Lexical semantics

Lexical semantics (the semantics of words) is becoming an important part of Natural Language Processing. Researchers and systems are beginning to address semantics at the large scale.

One of the definitions says that “lexical semantics is the study of what individual lexical items mean, why they mean what they do, how we can represent all of this, and where the combined interpretation for an utterance comes from.” It is usually defined as the study of word meaning, but in practice lexical semantics is often concerned with the study of lexical word meaning. People dealing with this kind of fields are more interested in the open classes of noun, verb and adjective.

Lexical semantics is focused on identification and representation of the semantics of lexical items such as polysemy, a single lexical item which have multiple meaning.

This technique turns out to be applicable at all to a small part of lexicon.

2.3.3 Phraseology and Etymology

Etymology is another branch of linguistics. It studies the origin and development of words and other linguistic forms. Etymology studies the earliest origins of a word, how its meanings and connotations have changed, the meanings and origins of its component parts, whether or how it has spread to other languages, and how its meaning or use has been influenced by other words.

Another branch of lexicology, together with lexicography is phraseology. It is pervasive in all language fields and is a subfield of lexicology dealing with the study of word combination rather than single words. Nowadays, phraseology has a much more profound influence on researches and their views in language learning, acquisition, teaching and natural language processing.

In sum, “a phraseologism is defined as the co-occurrence of a form or a lemma of a lexical item and one or more additional linguistics elements of various kinds which functions as one semantic unit in a clause or sentence and whose frequency of co-occurrence is larger than expected on the basis of chance.”

2.4 What is a Dictionary?

A dictionary is “a book that contains a list of the words in a language in the order of the alphabet and that tells you what they mean, in the same or another language or a book that lists the words connected with a particular subject and tells you what they mean.”

Another definition says that a dictionary is “a reference book that focuses on defining words and phrases, including multiple meanings. The most frequently used dictionary is a language dictionary that includes the majority of frequently used words in a language. Language dictionaries are made for different types of users: scholars, office workers, schools, and second language learners.”

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a dictionary as a "book dealing with the individual words of a language (or certain specified class of them) so as to set forth their orthography, pronunciation, signification and use, their synonyms, derivation and history, or al least some of these facts, for convenience of reference the words are arranged in some stated order, now in most languages, alphabetical, and in larger dictionaries the information given in illustrated by quotations from literature".

A dictionary is a book or collection of words in a specific language, often listed allphabetically, with definitions, etymologies, pronunciations, and other information; or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. According to Nielsen 2008 a dictionary may be regarded as a lexicographical product that is characterised by three significant features:

1. it has been prepared for one or more functions;

2. it contains data that have been selected for the purpose of fulfilling those functions;

3. its lexicographic structures link and establish relationships between the data so that they can meet the needs of users and fulfil the functions of the dictionary.”

In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet.

Dictionaries are for people with special needs. A reader looks at the dictionary mainly for the particular information:

1. for different types of information on words e.g. pronunciation, etymology or usage.

2. for distinguishing the good or proper usage from the bad or wrong usage. This is the legislative or the court house function of the dictionary.

A dictionary also serves as “a clearing house” of information.

The practical dictionary is the dictionary collected by the lexicographer and consulted by the readers for different purposes. The description of this dictionary is the subject matter of this book. The theoretical dictionary is the dictionary of an individual speaker of a language. It represents the semantic competence of the person. The speaker uses this dictionary to choose and implement appropriate words in different structures and contexts. The theoretical dictionary or the lexicon of an individual is always changing. From time to time new words are added, some words are dropped or some new meanings are added to the existing words. It is provoked of the needs of communication. It is in this sense that the lexicon is called an open-ended set.

Another difference between the practical and the theoretical dictionary lies in the system of the 'arrangement' of lexical entries. Whereas in the practical dictionary the entries are 'arranged' in some ordered form, in the theoretical dictionary the entries are in an unordered set.

2.5 Glossaries

“A glossary is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms.” Traditionally, a glossary is located at the end of a book. It includes terms within that book which are newly introduced or at least uncommon.

A list of terms in one language which are defined in a second language or glossed by synonyms (or at least near-synonyms) in another language is called a bilingual glossary.

A glossary also contains explanations of concepts relevant to a certain field of study or action. In this sense, the term is contemporaneously related to ontology.

2.6 Calques and borrowings (loan translation)

A loanword is a lexical item (word) which has been borrowed from another language. Languages borrowed words from other languages especially because of need and prestige. Speakers need a new term to go along with the new acquisition and for prestige because the foreign term is, for some reason, highly esteemed. It is also called “luxury” loans. “A loanword (or loan word) is a word borrowed from one language and incorporated into another.” People from one country borrow some expressions or words from another country. Not neccesarely countries it could happen inside one.

Loanwords are words adopted by people speaking one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. Loanwords cannot transfer from one language to another, and they cannot come to the source language. They simply are spoken and used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in.

“The adoption of features which differ from those of the main tradition is linguistic borrowing”

Borrowing come into existence because of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community.

An expression introduced into one language by translating it from another language called a calque. It is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself.

“In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word or root-for-root translation.” A calque is a special kind of borrowing. This is where a language borrows an expressions from of another. Words or phrases that cannot be translated by means of a calque. A calque is a form of literal translation. Calquing can also be called cultural borrowing.

For example, the common English phrase "alcohol" is a phrase calque that literally translates the Polish "alkohol"

A verb, "to calque" means that we can borrow a word or phrase from another language during translating its components and either we create a new lexeme in the target language. But using calque as a translation device is sometimes dangerous because the meaning of calqued phrases may not be clear in the TT.

A calque exhibits a certain degree of exoticism bringing into the TT the cultural foreignness and strangeness of the source culture.

A literal meaning of a calqued phrase is the same in both languages. However, the main meaning of a phrase is often times the same in the language that the phrase is calqued into and the language that the phrase was calqued from.

I. Importation

1. foreign word means non-integrated word from a foreign language,

2. loan word is an integrated word from a foreign language, it is orthography adapted for the receiving language,

II. Partial substitution is composite words where one part is borrowed and another one substituted.

III. substitution

1. loan coinage

1. loan formation

• loan translation means translation of the elements of the foreign word

• loan rendering means translation of part of the elements of the foreign word,

2. loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word,

2. loan meaning means indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred.

There are three basic groups of borrowings:

1. “Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution.

2. Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation.

3. Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation.”

2.6.1. Cultural Borrowing

The borrowed features come from a different language is called cultural borrowing. Cultural borrowing is taking ideas, customs, and social behaviors from another culture or civilization. Every speech - community learns from its neighbours. Natural and manufactured objects pass from one community to the other. This spread of things and habbits are called cultural diffusion and is studied by ethnologists. The areas of diffusion of a cultural features do not coincide. The speech - forms by which these are named often pass from people to people. In most instances we cannot ascertain the moment of actual innovation, the speaker himself probably could not be sure whether he had ever before heard or used the foreign form in his native language. People must distinguish between this actual introduction and the ensuing repetition by the same and other speakers. If the original introducer or a later user has good command of the foreign language, he may speak the foreign form in foreign phonetic, even in his native context.

This kind of borrowing is one sided or at most unequal, although it is not always quite as straightforward as this suggests. Indeed it is very sensitive to socio-cultural realities and may be bound up with intimate borrowing. Despite that cultural borrowing is clear, we cannot predict the effects if we do not know the social conditions operating.

2.6.2 Intimate Borrowing

Intimate borrowing is “the borrowing of linguistic forms by one language or dialect from another when both occupy a single geographical or cultural community”.

Cultural borrowing and Intimate borrowing can be distinguished where they occur when two languages are spoken in what is topographically and politically a single community. This situation arises for the most part by conquest, less often in the way of peaceful migration. Intimate borrowing is one - sided. It can be distinguished between upper or dominant language, spoken by conquering and privileged group, and the lower language which is spoken by subject people or immigrants. This borrowing goes mainly from the upper language to the lower. It also extends to speech - forms that are not connected with cultural novelties. Intimate borrowing is likely to do so because it is more likely to affect highly stable meanings.

2.6.3 Dialect Borrowing

Dialect borrowing is difficult to identify. It refers to the process of one dialect copying an element or structure from another dialect. In borrowing word or expression changes in form or in meaning or in both in the transfer. Dialect borrowing is usually found in the same language and takes place between mutually intelligible varieties of the same language. It implies negotiation of the status of the groups doing the linguistic borrowing and lending. Whole groups of speakers agree in adopting or favoring or disfavoring a speech - form. A turn of speech passes from person to person within different kind of groups. New forms and favoritisms are adopted usually only from some people. In any group some persons are leaders and they have got more power and in prestige. Almost every person belongs to a certain group where the persons belong to a dominant class.

Chapter Three: Art of brewing vocabulary

3.1 The objective of compiling Art of brewing vocabulary.

“Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea”. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains—the most common of which is malted barley, although wheat, maize (corn), and rice are widely used. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included.

Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi," a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.

The basics of brewing beer are “shared across national and cultural boundaries and are commonly categorized into two main types — the globally popular pale lagers, and the regionally distinct ales”, which are further categorised into other varieties such as pale ale, stout and brown ale. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume though may range from less than 1% abv., to over 20% abv. in rare cases.

Beer forms part of the culture of various beer-drinking nations and has acquired various social traditions and associations, such as beer festivals and a rich pub culture involving activities such as pub crawling or pub games such as bar billards.

“Art of brewing vocabulary” has been compiled for engineers and people entering the field of brewing industry, for all people for whom a typical dictionary is not enough to perform their every day work.

These words and phrases I was given by people working in the brewing industries and attending on the English course teaching by me. I had to translate them into Polish language.

The main aim of creating the dictionary has been a development of a “tool” of work in the field of brewing, the branch developing in such a great pace. In this place it should be emphasized that all over the world there are only few dictionaries devoted to that particular domain and they are hardly accessible.

As the communicative and translating needs in the field of brewing are constantly growing and there is a lack of dictionaries dealing with that domain, concentrating on the before mentioned subject field seems to be justified.

“Brewing Glossary” includes Basic Beer Terms, Beer Brewing Terms and Beer Tasting Terms. There are 117 terms. This glossary is only a small part of the factual state of the reality compiling the dictionary that would satisfy all the translation needs is a very difficult task.

I hope that this small glossary will be indispensable, essential and valuable reading for all the people interested in brewing and malting technology.

3.2 Brewing Glossary - Słownik piwowarski

3.2.1 Basic Beer Terms- Podstawowe terminy piwowarskie

(1) Source Text : Ale: A beer made of hops, malt, and top-fermenting yeast. There are a lot of varies of ale beer, from pale to dark amber in color with smooth and sweet texture, fruity flavor, it is stronger and more bitter than beer.

Target Text : Ale: Nazwa piwa produkowanego z chmielu, słodu i ze sfermentowanych drożdży. Waha się od blado do ciemnego koloru bursztynowego, konsystencja jest gładka i słodka, smak owocowy, silniejsze i bardziej gorzkie niż piwo.

(2) ST(henceforth): Amber: A reddish-brown color beer, from pale to dark.

TT (henceforth): Bursztyn: Nazwa piwa pochodząca od koloru czerwono-brązowego, asortyment od blado do ciemnego koloru.

(3) ST: Barley wine: A bittersweet beer, high rich with dark colour and higher alcohol content.

TT: Wino Jęczmienne: Ciemne, wysokokaloryczne, gorzko - słodkie piwo o wysokiej zawartości alkoholu.

(4) ST: Bitter: A beer with amber colour, with a fragrant bouquet, produced from hops with dry, sharp flavor.

TT: Rodzaj piwa o gorzkim smaku: Piwo bursztynowe z pachnącym bukietem, wytwarzane z chmielu, z suchym, ostrym smakiem.

(5) ST: Bock: It is a kind of beer, strong and malty lager. Beer from pale to dark brown in color with around 6 percent alcohol by volume.

TT: Mocne ciemne piwo: Silne, słodowe, pełne jasne piwo różniące się kolorem, od blado do ciemnego brązu, o zawartości alkoholu około 6 procent objętości.

(6) ST: Brewpub: A place or pub where beer is sold on site.

TT: Pub, w którym pije się piwo (browarek): browar jak również knajpka lub pub, które sprzedaje piwo na miejscu.

(7) ST: Brown ale: A beer with nutty and malty flavour, with dark brown color, from dry to sweet in flavor.

TT: Brązowe Piwo: Orzechowe, słodowe piwo w kolorze ciemno brązowym, od słodkiego do suchego.

(8) ST: Burton: A strong beer with dark brown color and roasty malt flavors.
TT: Burton: Mocne piwo o ciemno brązowym kolorze, o smaku palonego słodu.

(9) ST: Cooper : A craftsman who makes wooden beer kegs.

TT: Bednarz: Rzemieślnik, który robi drewniane beczki do piwa.

(10) ST: Dopplebock: A strong beer in version, meaning “double bock,” contents 8 to 13 percent by volume with a stronger alcohol.

TT: Dopplebock: Wersja , mocnego piwa tzw "podwójny bock", z większą zawartością alkoholu, który waha się od 8 do 13 procent objętości.

(11) ST: Draft (draught): It is a kind of dispensing beer from a keg, a cask, or a bright tank.
TT: Projekt (zanurzenie): Metoda dystrybucji piwa z beczki, beczka, lub jasny zbiornik.

(12) ST: Hard cider: A sweet drink made from fermented apples.

TT: Twardy jabłecznik: słodki napój ze sfermentowanych jabłek.

(13) ST: Hefeweizen: A beer with refreshing, frothy wheat in flavor, which is lighter in body and alcohol content.

TT: Hefeweizen: orzeźwiające, pieniste piwo pszeniczne, które jest łagodniejsze w smaku i zawiera mniej alkoholu.

(14) ST: Holiday beer: A special beer brewed in seasonal. It is from amber to dark brown in color with sweet flavor and often special spicy, fruity, or herby.

TT: Piwo wakacyjne: Specjalnie ważone piwo w kolorze od bursztynowego do ciemno brązowego, o słodkim smaku i często specjalnie pikantne, owocowe lub ziołowe.

(15) ST: India Pale Ale (IPA): A pale beer that is plentiful hoppy.

TT: Jasne piwo Indyjskie (IPA): Jasne piwo, które jest obficie chmielowe.

(16) ST: Kölsch: A West German beer, mildly malty in flavor, the colour is very pale and it is a bit tart in flavour.

TT: Kölsch: Łagodne, słodowe zachodnio niemiecki piwo, które jest bardzo blade trochę cierpkie w smaku.

(17) ST: Lager: A clean beer made with bottom-fermenting yeasts, crisp in flavor, at near freezing temperatures for longer periods of time.

TT: Piwo pełne jasne: Rześkie, czyste piwo wykonane z późnej fermentacji drożdży w niskich temperaturach przez dłuższy.

(18) ST: Malt liquor: It is a malty lager beer, pale in color with an alcohol content above 5 percent by volume,

TT: Wysokoprocentowy słodowy trunek (napitek): słodowe, pełne jasne piwo o zawartości alkoholu powyżej 5 procent objętości, jak określono w Stanach Zjednoczonych.

(19) ST: Pale ale: A highly hopped beer, that is made from high-quality malt, dry in flavor.

TT: Jasne piwo: Bardzo wysoko chmielowe piwo wykonane z wysokiej jakości słodu, suche w smaku.

(20) ST: Pilsner: Very pale beer, brewed from bottom-fermenting yeast with a dry, hoppy flavor and aroma.

TT: Pilsner: Piwo o kolorze bardzo jasnym, produkowane z drożdży dolnej fermentacji z suchym, chmielowym smakiem i aromatem.

(21) ST: Porter: Dark brown in color beer, bittersweet or chocolaty in flavor, brewed from well-roasted barley and full-bodied in texture.

TT: Porter: Piwo produkowane z dobrze parzonego palonego jęczmienia. W kolorze ciemnego brązu oraz słodko gorzkim smaku czekolady.

(22) ST: Pub: A gathering place that serves beer and often other alcoholic beverages on site.

TT: Pub: Miejsce spotkań gdzie serwują piwo i inne napoje alkoholowych, często na miejscu.

(23) ST: Publican: A pub owner or manager.

TT: Właściciel lub kierownik pubu.

(24) ST: Stout: A rich, dark brown in color beer brewed from full-flavored roasted malts and top-fermenting yeast, sometimes with caramel sugar and high hop content, full-bodied in texture, and slightly burnt in flavour.

TT: Stout: Mocne piwo o pełnym smaku produkowane z palonych słodów i drożdży górnej fermentacji, czasami z karmelem i wysoką zawartością chmielu. W kolorze ciemnego brązu, o pełnej strukturze i nieco spalony w smaku.

(25) ST: Wheat beer: A pale beer made with wheat malt, medium-bodied in texture, and slightly tart in flavor.

TT: Piwo pszeniczne: Jasne piwo produkowane ze słodu pszennego, o średniej strukturze i lekko kwaśny w smaku.

Linguistics calques	Borrowings
	ST: Ale - TT: Ale ST: Burton - TT: Burton ST: Dopplebock - TT: Dopplebock ST: Hefeweizen - TT: Hefeweizen ST: Kölsch - TT: Kölsch ST: Pilsner - TT: Pilsner ST: Porter - TT: Porter ST: Pub - TT: Pub ST: Stout - TT: Stout

In this section there are nine borrowings and no calques. There are 25 Basic Beer Terms and borrowings constitute 36% of all words. This borrowings are used to give a prestige for the name of beer for example Porter, Pilsner, Hefeweizen, Kölsch, Pub. These terms sounds better than “piwo jasne” or “piwo ciemne”. Every people who work in brewing industry, like drinking beer or are the connoisseurs of this drink know what is Porter, Pilsner, Hefeweizen or Kölsch. These borrowings belong to Intimate borrowings. Often these term do not have proper interpretation.

3.2.2 Beer Brewing Terms - Terminy piwowarskie (Sztuka warzenia piwa)

(26) Source Text: Additives: substances like enzymes, antioxidants and preservatives which is added to beer in order to improve its taste or appearance or to preserve it

Target Text: Dodatki: substancje takie jak enzymy, przeciwutleniacze i konserwanty dodawane do piwa w celu zachowania lub poprawy jego trwałości.

(27) ST: Alcohol: A colourless liquid (it can be ethyl alcohol or ethanol) which can make you drunk, and which is also used as a solvent (= a substance that dissolves another) and which results naturally from fermentation.

TT: Alkohol: Bezbarwny płyn (może to być alkohol etylowy lub etanol), który powoduje, że czujemy się pijani, może być rozpuszczalnikiem (substancja, która rozpuszcza inne) jak również może wynikać naturalnie z fermentacji.

(28) ST: Anaerobic: An organism, not needing or without oxygen or yeast in the case of beer, that thrives without oxygen.

TT: Bakterie beztlenowe: Organizm lub drożdże, w przypadku piwa, które doskonale prosperują bez tlenu.

(29) ST: Aroma hops: A strong pleasant hop variety smell chosen for its enhanced bouquet.
TT: Zapach chmielu: Silny, przyjemny zapach chmielu, by wzmocnić bukiet piwa.

(30) ST: Barley: a tall plant like grass with long straight hairs growing from the head of each stem, or the grain from this plant which is used for food and for making beer and whisky.

TT: Jęczmień: ziarno, które jest słodowane do wykorzystania w zacieru podczas procesu warzenia.

(31) ST: Bottle conditioning: This is the secondary fermenting or maturing method in the bottle, which can help to develop a beer's complexity.

TT: Rozlanie do butelek: Metoda powtórnego fermentowania lub dojrzewania w butelce, która może pomóc rozwinąć złożoność piwa.

(32) ST: Bottom-fermenting yeast: It is one of two strains of yeast which is used in brewing beer, mainly pale beer, that responds best at lower temperatures and ferments more sugars for a cleaner flavor.

TT: Drożdże dolnej fermentacji: Jeden z dwóch szczepów drożdży używanych w warzenia piwa, głównie piwa jasnego, które reagują najlepiej w niższych temperaturach i powodują fermentację w większości cukrów dla czystszego smaku.

(33) ST: Black malt: Grain, usually barley, that has been left in water until it starts to grow and is then dried. It is used in the making of alcoholic drinks such as beer and whisky. Malted barley is roasted at high temperatures and used to give beer its dark color and roasty flavor.

TT: Słód barwiący: Zboże, głównie jęczmień, który jest przechowywany w wodzie zanim zacznie rosnąć i uschnąć. Zwykle używany do produkcji napoi alkoholowych takich jak piwo i whisky Słód barwiący nadaje piwu ciemny kolor oraz mocny smak.

(34) ST: Brew kettle: A container in which we boil mash with hops.

TT: Zbiornik: Zbiornik, w którym gotowany jest zacier z chmielem.

(35) ST: Bright beer tank: A large container which holds liquid, used in different technological processes mainly in brewing industry.

TT: Kadź: Zbiornik na ciecz, zwykle o dużej pojemności, używany w różnych procesach technologicznych, m.in. w przemyśle browarniczym.

(36) ST: Bung: A round piece of rubber, wood, etc. that is used to close the hole in a container. TT: Szpunt (korek): okrągły kawałek gumy lub drewna, który służy do zamykania otworu w beczce, butelce.

(37) ST: Caramel: A less expensive burnt sugar used to give flavour and a brown colour to a beer.

TT: Karmel: Mniej kosztowny przypalany cukier wykorzystywany by dodać smaku i brązowego koloru.

(38) ST: Caramel malt: A sugary, amber-colored malt used to sweeten beer and increase head retention.

TT: Karmelowy słód: słodki, bursztynowy kolor słodu używany do słodzenia piwa i zwiększenia retencji.

(39) ST: Carbonation: A carbonated drink is fizzy because it contains bubbles of natural carbon dioxide. In beer it is produced in fermentation or injected artificially afterward.

TT: Nasycenie dwutlenkiem węgla: Nasycony dwutlenkiem węgla napój jest gazowany (musujący), gdyż zawiera bąbelki. W piwie powstają one w wyniku fermentacji lub są wstrzyknięte sztucznie.

(40) ST: Cask: A barrel or metal container for holding beer.

TT: Beczka: Beczka lub metalowy pojemnik do przechowywania piwa.

(41) ST: Cask conditioning: The secondary cask fermenting or maturing method, which can help develop a beer's carbonation.

TT: Rozlewanie do beczek: Metoda wtórnej fermentacji lub dojrzewania w beczkach, które mogą rozwijać nasycenie dwutlenkiem węgla w piwie.

(42) ST: Chill haze: A residue appearing in beers at low temperatures, due to protein-tannin compound precipitation.

TT: Chłodna mgła: osad, który pojawia się w piwie w niskich temperaturach, dzięki białku garbnika.

(43) ST: Conditioning: The warm or cold secondary fermenting or maturing method, which can help develop a beer's carbonation or complexity of flavor.

TT: Kondycjonowanie: Metoda ciepłej lub zimnej wtórnej fermentacji lub dojrzewania, która może pomóc rozwijać w piwa nasycenie dwutlenkiem węgla lub złożoność smaku.

(44) ST: Conditioning tank: A container used for storing or putting objects or a curved container which is used to hold liquid used for conditioning beer.

TT: Kondycjonowanie kadzi: zbiornik lub kadź wykorzystywany do kondycjonowania piwa.

(45) ST: Dextrin: An unfermentable carbohydrate that is found in malted barley. It gives beer its flavor and feel in mouth.

TT: Dekstryna: niesfermentowane węglowodany znalezione w słodowanym jęczmieniu, co daje piwu smak i czucie w ustach.

(46) ST: Dosage: An amount of yeast and/or sugar that is added to the bottle or cask to simplify conditioning.

TT: Dawkowanie: ilość drożdży i / lub cukru dodana do butelki lub antałka ułatwiające leżakowanie.

(47) ST: Dry-hopping: The way of adding dry hops to fermenting or aging beer to intensify hop quality or aroma.

TT: Suchy chmiel: Metoda dodawania suchego chmielu do fermentacji lub starzenie się piwa by wzmocnić jakość i aromat chmielu.

(48) ST: Enzymes: proteins that act as a catalyst in living organisms produced by living cells, regulating specific biochemical reactions, During germination not only are enzymes formed and increased in amount but also used so that nutrients can be supplied to the seedling

(49) TT: Enzymy: białka o właściwościach biokatalitycznych wytwarzane przez każdy żywy organizm, regulujące przebieg reakcji biochemicznych, W czasie kiełkowania enzymy są nie tylko uaktywnione i tworzone, lecz są już czynne. aby dostarczać zarodkowi substancje odżywcze.

(50) ST: Ethanol: A chemical compound which is a type of alcohol formed from yeast during fermentation.

TT: Etanol: Typ alkoholu wytworzony z drożdży podczas fermentacji.

(51) ST: Fermentation: To (cause something to) change chemically through the action of living substances, such as yeast which converts sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.

TT: Fermentacja: aktywacji drożdży, które przemieniają cukier na alkohol etylowy i dwutlenek węgla.

(52) ST: Filter: To remove solids from liquids, using special equipment. In the brewing technology adulteration from the wort are removed. Yeast in suspension is often removed.

TT: Filter: Usunięcie zanieczyszczeń z płynów używając specjalnego sprzętu. W technologii piwowarskiej, zanieczyszczenia brzeczki są usuwane. Drożdże w zawieszeniu są często usuwane.

(53) ST: Final specific gravity: A beer's density measurement after fermentation, as compared to water.

TT: Pomiar ciężaru: Pomiar ciężaru właściwego piwa po fermentacji, w porównaniu do wody.

(54) ST: Fining: A substance attracting suspended molecules in beer and provides clarification.

TT: Dystynkcja: Substancja, która przyciąga cząsteczki zawieszone w piwie i dostarcza klarowności.

(55) ST: Grist: The milled grains mixture that is used in a specific brew.

TT: Śruta: Mieszanina mielonego ziarna, które są stosowane w warzeniu piwa.

(56) ST: Heat exchanger: A machinery that is used to quickly reduce the wort temperature.

TT: Wymiennik ciepła: Mechanizm wykorzystywany do szybkiego zmniejszenia temperatury brzeczki.

(57) ST: Infusion: When one thing is added to another to make it stronger or better. In brewing industry it is mash-making method when malt is soaked in water and kept at one temperature.

TT: Infuzja: Kiedy jedna rzecz jest dodawana do drugiej w celu jej ulepszenia. W przemyśle piwowarskim jest to metoda robienia zacieru, w którym słód jest moczony w wodzie i przechowywany w jednej temperaturze.

(58) ST: Keg: A barrel or container for beer.

TT: Baryłka/Antałek: beczka lub kontener na piwo.

(59) ST: Laagering: The maturing method that is at cold temperatures.

TT: Leżakowanie: Metoda dojrzewania w niskich temperaturach.

(60) ST: Lauder: The extracting malt sugars method from the wort by raking through the mash tub.

TT: Lauder: Metoda ekstrakcji słodu cukrów z brzeczki poprzez kadź zacieru.

(61) ST: Liquor: The water infusion that is used in malting, mashing, or brewing.

TT: Nalew: Napar z wody stosowany w produkcji słodu, zacieru lub w procesie warzenia piwa.

(62) ST: Malt extract: The substance which is reactivated with water for fermentation. In the form of syrup or powdered sugar, with maltose and dextrins, generally speaking it is the processed mash.

TT: Ekstrakt słodowy: Przetworzony zacier w postaci syropu lub proszkowanego cukru z maltozą i dekstrynami, który jest następnie dodawany z wodą do fermentacji.

(63) ST: Malting: In order to begin fermentation it is the way of converting barley grain starches to maltose.

TT: Słodownictwo: Sposób przeliczania skrobi ziarna jęczmienia do maltozy w celu rozpoczęcia fermentacji.

(64) ST: Maltose: A type of sugar made in the body from starch by enzymes (= substances that cause chemical change) in another way, the fermentable malt sugar, which is in the water.

TT: Maltoza: Rodzaj cukru przetworzonego w ciele przez enzymy (substancje, które powodują zmiany chemiczne), inaczej -fermentujący cukier słodu, który jest w wodzie.

(65) ST: Mash: The mixture at the end that comes from soaking and cooking barley malt in water, where the fermentable sugars are released.

TT: Kadź: Końcowa mieszanina, która pochodzi z moczenia i gotowania słodu jęczmiennego w wodzie, gdzie uwalniane są fermentujące cukry.

(66) ST: Mashing: Mixing of the grist with water ( mashing liquour) at a extrapolate mashing-in temperature, the process of making mash,

TT: Zacieranie: Zmieszanie śruty z wodą (nalewem) o przewidzianej temperaturze, czyli proces robienia zacieru.

(67) ST: Mash tub: A prepared container used for turning mash into wort.

TT: Kadź zacieru: Przygotowany zbiornik używany do obróbki zacieru do brzeczki.

(68) ST: Mead: An alcoholic drink made from honey, water, yeast, and other additives like spices, herbs, or fermented fruit.

TT: Miód pitny: Napój alkoholowy produkowany z miodu, wody, drożdży i innych dodatków, takich jak przyprawy, zioła lub fermentowane owoce.

(69) ST: Microbrewery: A small company which makes beer, usually using traditional methods, and which often has a restaurant where its beer is served and selling less than 15,000 barrels a year.

TT: Mini browar: Mała firma produkująca piwo, zwykle stosująca tradycyjne metody, posiadająca własną restauracje gdzie serwowane jest to piwo i sprzedająca mniej niż 15.000 baryłek rocznie.

(70) ST: Pasteurisation: The way of heating beer at a controlled temperature for a fixed period of time in order to kill bacteria or to stabilize its microscopic organisms and their effects.

TT: Pasteryzacja: Sposób ogrzewania piwa w odpowiedniej temperaturze i odpowiednim czasie w celu zabicia bakterii i ustabilizowania mikroskopijnych organizmów i ich skutków.

(71) ST: Pitch: The way of adding yeast to the wort.

TT: Nastawienie: Metoda dodawania drożdży do brzeczki.

(72) ST: Priming: To promote a secondary fermentation sugar is added to the beer in mature stage.

TT: Priming: W celu wspierania fermentacji wtórnej w fazie dojrzałej dodaje się cukier do piwa.

(73) ST: Secondary fermentation: The method which can develop a beer's carbonation or complexity of flavor via of warm or cold secondary fermenting or maturing,.

TT: Wtórna fermentacja: Metoda, która pozwala rozwijać w piwie nasycenia dwutlenku węgla lub złożoności smaku poprzez ciepłą lub zimną wtórną fermentacjię lub dojrzewanie.

(74) ST: Sediment: A soft substance that is like a wet powder and consists of very small pieces of a solid material which have fallen to the bottom of a liquid, in conditioned beer it is the yeasty substance at the bottom of a bottle.

TT: Osad: Substancja przypominająca proszek składająca się z małych kawałków jednolitego materiału, która opada na dno płynu, w rozlanym piwie jest to pienista substancja u dołu butelki.

(75) ST: Spurge: In order to remove soluble sugars at the end of the mash it is used the method of spraying the grist with hot water.

TT: Spurge: W celu usunięcia rozpuszczalnych cukrów na koniec okresu zacieru stosuje się metodę natryskiwania przemiału ciepłą wodą.

(76) ST: Wort: The assortment of grain sugars that are filtered from the mash tub.

TT: Brzeczka: Mieszanka ziarna cukrów odfiltrowanych z kadzi zacieru.

(77) ST: Yeast: A type of fungus which is used in making alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine, that is added to wort, which aids in turning fermentable sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

TT: Drożdże: Rodzaj grzybów, które są używane do produkcji napojów alkoholowych takich jak piwo i wino, które dodaje się do brzeczki, i które pomagają w toczenia fermentującym cukru na alkohol i dwutlenek węgla.

Linguistics calques	Borrowings
ST: Alcohol - TT: Alcohol ST: Caramel - TT: Karmel ST: Conditionong - TT: Kondycjonowanie ST: Dextrin - TT: Dekstryna ST: Enzymes - TT: Enzymy ST: Ethanol - TT: Etanol ST: Fermentation - TT: Fermentacja ST: Filter - TT: Filtr ST: Infusion - TT: Infuzja ST: Maltose - TT: Maltoza ST: Pasteurisation - TT: Pasteryzacja	ST: Lauder - TT: Lauder ST: Priming - TT: Priming ST: Spurge - TT: Spurge

In this section there are eleven linguistics calques and three borrowings. There are 51 Beer Brewing Terms, linguistics calques constitute 21% and borrowings 5,8% of all words.

3.2.3 Beer Tasting Terms - Terminy smaku piwa

(78) Source Text: Acidic: containing acid, or having similar qualities to an acid, it characterized a sour or sharp flavour.

Target Text: Kwasowe: kwaśne lub o charakterystycznym ostry smak.

(79) ST: Alcoholic: Ethanol and higher alcohols give an warming effect.

TT: Alkoholowe: ocieplający efekt etanolu i wyższych alkoholi.

(80) ST: Aroma: A strong pleasant smell of a beer, from fruity to malty, flowery to spicy, and more.

TT: Zapach/aromat: Silny, przyjemny zapach piwa, począwszy od owocowego do słodowego, od kwiecistego do ostrego i więcej.

(81) ST: Astringent: A drug or cream that causes the skin or other tissue to tighten so that the flow of blood or other liquids stops.

TT: Cierpkość: jakość, która produkuje suchość, wrażenie kwaśnego jabłka dziąseł i języka.

(82) ST: Bacterial: A flavor caused by, made from, or relating to bacteria, mold or mustiness often due to spoilage.

TT: Bakteryjne: Smak sugerujących pleśń lub stęchliznę często ze względu na psucie.

(83) ST: Balance: When the bouquet and palate are in perfect proportionate agreement with one another.

TT: Stan: Kiedy elementy piwa, łącznie z bukietem i podniebieniem są proporcjonalnie w idealnym porozumieniu ze sobą.

(84) ST: Bitter: Something noticeable at the back of the tongue like a twinge or strong sensation.

TT: Gorzki: Kłucie lub silne uczucie zauważalne na tylnej części języka.

(85) ST: Bouquet: Specialized the characteristic smell of a wine, liqueur or beer from fruity to malty, flowery to spicy, and more

TT: Bukiet: Węch lub zapach piwa, począwszy od owocowego do słodowego, od kwiecistego do ostrego i więcej.

(86) ST: Bright: It is a quality that we can see describing a beer's clarity or color.

TT: Jasność: Wizualna jakość, opisująca klarowność lub kolor piwa.

(87) ST: Cabbage-like: We feel something like a cabbage in an aroma of flavour often due to rotten wort.

TT: Kapuściany: Zapach lub smak sugerujących kapustę często ze względu na zgniłość brzeczki.

(88) ST: Chlorophenolic: An aroma, usually resulting from chemical reactions between chlorine and phenol compounds, suggestive of plastic

TT: Chlorofenole: Zapach sugerujący plastik, zazwyczaj wynikający z reakcji chemicznej między związkami chloru i fenolu.

(89) ST: Clove-like: Flavour suggestive of clove often due to wild yeast, spicy.

TT: Goździkowy smak: Pikantny smak sugerujący smak goździkowy często z powodu dzikich drożdży

(90) ST: Creamy: It is a beer where the texture and weight is with good natural carbonation. TT: Śmietankowy/kremowy: Struktura i waga piwa z dobrym naturalnym nasyceniem dwutlenku węgla.

(91) ST: Dank: A wet, cold and unpleasant aroma suggestive of mold.

TT: Przesiąknięty wilgocią: zapach sugerujący pleśń.

(92) ST: Dry: A beer which at the end is sharp in the mouth, not sweet.

TT: Suchy: Piwo, które pod koniec w ustach jest ostre a nie słodkie.

(93) ST: Ester: Product of a reaction between an acid and alcohol, naturally in fermentation, from fruity and spicy to flowery.

TT: Ester: Złożony smak asortymentu, naturalnie w trakcie fermentacji, od owocowego i pikantnego do kwiecistego.

(94) ST: Finish: The aftertaste that remains in the mouth after swallowing a sip of beer.

TT: Wykończenie: Posmak, który pozostaje w ustach po połknięciu łyku piwa.

(95) ST: Fruity: Aroma or flavor that is sweet often suggestive of bananas, apples, pears, citrus, strawberries, and more.

TT: Owocowy: Słodki zapach lub smak sugerujący banany, jabłka, gruszki, owoce cytrusowe, truskawki i wiele więcej.

(96) ST: Grainy: A flavor suggests raw grain or cereal.

TT: Ziarnisty: Smak sugerujący surowe ziarno lub zboże.

(97) ST: Hang: A flavor in the mouth, after swallowing a sip of beer, that is a long-lingering bitterness or harshness

TT: Hang: Długo trzymający się smak goryczy lub surowości/ostrości, który pozostaje w ustach po połknięciu łyka piwa.

(98) ST: Hoppy: The fragrant odor of hops in beer.

TT: Chmielowy: Zapach przypominający chmiel.

(99) ST: Hops: The small leaves projecting form the spindle of the hop cone, consisting of bracts and bracteoles, added to fermenting beer or boiling wort to produce a bitter flavor and aroma.

TT: Chmiel: Zioło dodane do fermentującego piwa lub wrzącej brzeczki by wytworzyć gorzki smak i aromat.

(100) ST: Light-Struck: A flavour suggests skunk, usually caused by overexposure to light.

TT: Uderzenie światłem: Kwaśny smak, zazwyczaj spowodowany kontaktem ze światłem

(101) ST: Medicinal: A chemical flavor or aroma, suggestive of plastic, smoke or cloves, usually resulting from wild yeast or sanitizer residue.

TT: Leczniczy: Smak lub zapach przypominający chemiczny, plastikowy dym lub goździki, najczęściej wynikające z dzikich drożdży lub pozostałości sanitarnych.

(102) ST: Mouthfeel: A beer that is perceived in the mouth, it may have a thin or full mouthfeel.

TT: Smak w ustach: Struktura i waga piwa odczuwana w ustach. Piwo może być „cienkie” lub pełne.

(103) ST: Musty: Smelling unpleasantly old and slightly wet usually a stale or mildewy aroma or flavor.

TT: Zastarzały: Przeterminowany lub pleśniowy zapach lub smak.

(104) ST: Oxidized: If a substance oxidizes, it combines with oxygen and loses hydrogen to form another substance, and if something oxidizes a substance, it causes it to do this. A flavor, usually resulting from overexposure to air or high temperatures during aging that is rotting or stale

TT: Utleniany: Zgniły lub przestarzały smak, zazwyczaj wynikający z kontaktu z powietrzem lub wysokimi temperaturami podczas dojrzewania.

(105) ST: Palate: If in a beer there is well-proportioned hop, malt, and fruit then we can say about the complex taste or notes

TT: Podniebienie: Kompleks smaku lub węchu znaleziony w piwie, określony przez dobre proporcje chmielu, słodu i owoców.

(106) ST: Phenolic: A beer whose flavor or aroma suggestive of medicine, plastic, smoke, or cloves, usually it is from wild yeast or sanitizer residue.

TT: Fenole: Smak lub zapach przypominający lekarstwo, plastik, dym lub goździki, najczęściej wynikające z dzikich drożdży lub pozostałości sanitarnych.

(107) ST: Salty: A salt flavor.

TT: Słony: Smak przypominający sól .

(108) ST: Shelf life: We have to consume a beer in a term of time.

TT: Okres trwałości: Okres piwa pozostający do spożycia.

(109) ST: Skunky: A skunk taste of a beer usually caused by overexposure to light.

TT: Skwaśniały: Skwaśniały smak alkoholu zazwyczaj spowodowany przez kontakt ze światłem.

(110) ST: Solvent-like: A acetone flavor or aroma, usually caused by high temperatures of fermentation.

TT: Rozpuszczalnik : Smak lub zapach przypominający aceton zazwyczaj spowodowany przez wysokie temperatury fermentacji.

(111) ST: Sour: The sensation along the sides of the tongue that is intense or vinegary .

TT: Kwaśny: Intensywne kwaśne lub octowe uczucie wzdłuż boków języka.

(112) ST: Sulfur-like: A sulfur or rotten eggs aroma or flavor usually resulting from a sulfur compound in some yeast varieties.

TT: Siarkowy :Zapach lub smak przypominający siarkę lub zgniłe jaja, zazwyczaj wynikające ze związków siarki w niektórych odmianach drożdży.

(113) ST: Sweet: A sugary taste which is at the tip of the tongue.

TT: Słodki: Słodki smak zauważalny na końcach języka.

(114) ST: Tangy: An impression along the sides of the tongue that is intensely.

TT: Posmak: Intensywne wrażenie przenikające wzdłuż boków języka.

(115) ST: Tart: A sensation along the sides of the tongue caused by acidic tastes that is intensely sharp. .

TT: Tarta: Intensywnie ostre uczucie wzdłuż boków języka spowodowanych przez kwaśny smak.

(116) ST: Vinous: A wine aroma or flavor.

TT: Winny: Aromat i smak przypominający wino.

(117) ST: Winy: The rich fruity essence of a fine wine.

TT: Winy: Bogata, owocowa esencja wyśmienitego wina.

(118) ST: Yeasty: A yeast flavour, usually resulting from beer sitting too long on sediment.

TT: Drożdżowy: Smak przypominający drożdże, zazwyczaj wynikający ze zbyt długiego przebywania osadu na nim.

Linguistics calques	Borrowings
ST: Aroma - TT: Aromat ST: Bacterial - TT: Bakteryjne ST: Bouquet - TT: Bukiet ST: Chlorophenolic - TT: Chlorofenole ST: Creamy - TT: Kremowy ST: Ester - TT: Ester ST: Phenolic - TT: Fenole ST: Tart - TT: Tarta ST: Vinous - TT: Winny	ST: Hang - TT: Hang ST: Winy - TT: Winy

In this section there are nine linguistics calques and two borrowings. There are 41 Beer Tasting Terms linguistics calques constitute 21,95% and borrowings 4,9% of all words.

In Brewing Glossary there are 117 terms. All borrowings constitute 11,96% and calques 17,09%. There are more calques than borrowings.

3.3 Conclusions

Glossaries are not written in the abstract or with the idea of serving all users rather, they begin with definition of typical users and their characteristics. Indeed, characterizing the likely or desired users of a glossary—and thus their needs so as to try to anticipate and meet them in advance.

The above chapter presents brewing glossary and techniques of translation. The main aim of creating the glossary has been a development of a “tool” of work in the field of brewing, the branch developing in such a great pace. I know that all over the world there are only few dictionaries and glossaries devoted to that particular domain and they are hardly accessible.

Creating this glossary I took account of engineers and people entering the field of brewing industry and people for whom a typical dictionary is not enough to perform their every day work. They are worth knowing if you are working in brewing industry or interested in beer or toy are simply the connoisseur of drinking or making beer.

It is not easy to make a glossary. Translating words and creating a glossary we have to use different materials and we have to know something about culture or tradition of language in which we work. To translate these words I used different dictionaries: Brewing Terminology from the Internet, Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Słownik Techniczny angielsko - polski, polsko - angielski, Oxford Wordpower Dictionary and other dictionaries from the Internet. As I said earlier, I was given these words from people working in brewing systematized so I divided them on three groups: Basic Beer Terms, which are mainly consisted of nouns, Beer Brewing Terms, there are nouns and compound - nouns and Beer Tasting Terms where are nouns, compound - nouns and adjectives. My glossary contains 117 terms. They were arranged in alphabetical order in these three sections.

Some of terms, in my translation, are borrowings and some of them are calques from another language mainly from German and British. I think, it is easier to use borrowings to translate some words because almost every people know them. For example “ Kölsch”, “Pilsner”, “Porter” , “Pub” etc.

General Conclusions

The people occupied with a certain professional subject field create their own language, i.e. the language they use to communicate within a certain subject field. Sooner or later the language becomes a specialist language. The language includes numbers of terms.

The collection of certain terms creates a terminological lexicon. Each language for a special purpose has its own terminological lexicon. The lexicon created from the brewing terms constitutes the terminological lexicon of brewing. This lexicon creates the specialist language of brewing.

The terms included in the presented dictionary may be used by professionals because they constitute professional terms. There are also conventional terms which are aimed at consolidating intellectual and practical purposes. It can be stated that the brewing language, as the representative of the language for a special purpose, comprises professional terms as well as conventional terms.

The language for brewing technology purpose is subject- specific and specialised as well as monofunctional. They can be collected to create the terminological lexicon of brewing terms.

BIBLIGRAPHY

1. BOOKS AND ARTICLES

Anderman, G., Rogers, M., (1999) Word, Text, Translation, Multilingual Matters LTD, Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto, Sydney.

Arnold, John P. Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology.

Auer, P., Hinskens, F., Kerswill, P., (2005) Dialect Change, Convergence and Divergence in European Languages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Bartmiński, J (2001) Współczesny Język Polski, Lublin.

Bauer, L. (1993) English Word-formation, “Cambridge textbooks in Linguistics”, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Baugh, A.C./ Cable, Th. 1993. A History of the English Language. London: Routledge.

Bergenholtz, H.,U. Kaufmann. 1997, Terminography and Lexicography. A critical Survey of Dictionaries from a Single Specialised Field, Hermes, Journal of Linguistic.

Bloomfield, L. (2005) Language, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi.

Coetsem, F., (1988) Loan Phonology and the Two Transfer Types in Language Contact, Publications in Language Sciences, Foris Publications, Dordrecht.

Culler, J. (1976). Structuralist poetics: structuralism, linguistics, and the study of literature. Cornell, Cornell University Press.

Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics, Cambridge University Press.

Danks, J.H., Shreve, G.M., Fountain, S.B. and McBeath, M.K. (eds) (1996) Cognitive Processes in Translation and Interpreting, Thousand Oaks, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Doroszewski, W (1973) Elements of lexicology and semiotics, Mouton.

Friend, J.H. (1967). The Development of American Lexicography 1798-1864, The Hague: Mouton.

Gumovskaya, G., (2005) English for special purposes, Uniwersytet Warszawski Katedra Języków Specjalistycznych, Warszawa.

Granger, S., Meunier, F. (ed.) (2008), Phraseology, an interdisciplinary perspective, John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Haugen, Einar (1950), The analysic of linguistic borrowing. Language 26.

Hartmann, R.R.K. ed. (1986). The History of Lexicography. Papers from the Dictionary Research Centre Seminar at Exeter, March 1986. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.

Kielar, B. Z.(2003) Zarys Translatorski, Zakład Graficzny UW, Warszawa.

Kopaliński, Wł. (ed.) (2000) Słownik Wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obcojęzycznych, Muza S.A., Warszawa.

Kunze, W. (1996|) Technology of Brewing and Malting, VLB, Berlin.

Lambrecht, K. (1994) Information Structure and Sentence Form, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Li, C. and Thomas, S. (1976) Subject and topic: A new typology of language. In C. Li (ed.) Subject and Topic, Academic Press, New York.

Lörscher, W. (1991) Translation Performance, Translation Process, and Translation Strategies, Tübingen: Narr.

Leksykon PWN, (1972) PWN, Warszawa.

Lukszyn, J., W. Zmarzer. (2001), Teoretyczne podstawy terminologii, Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa.

Lukszyn, J. ed. (2001), Metajęzyk lingwistyki, Wydawnictwo “AQUILA”Stanisław Finołowicz, Warszawa.

Lyons, J, (1981) Language and Linguistics, Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, F. (ed.)(2001), Language for special purposes: perspectives for the New millenium. Vol. 1. Linguistic and cognitive aspects, knowledge representation and computational linguistics, terminology, lexicography and didactics, Tubingen: Narr.

Murray, J.A.M. (1990), Evolution of English Lexicography, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Murray, K.M. Elizabeth, (1977), Caught in the Web of Words: James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nielsen, S. (2008), The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use, Lexikos.

Nowy Leksykon PWN, (1998) Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Reddick, A. 1990. The Making of Johnson's Dictionary 1746-1773. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Sebook, A., ed. 1960, Style of Language, New York - London.

Schroder, H (ed.) (1991) Subject - Oriented Texts, Languages for Special Purposes and Text Theory, Berlin.

Stein, G. 1985. The English Dictionary before Cawdrey. Lexicographica, Series Maior, Tübingen: Niemeyer.

Snyder, K.A. 1990. Defining Webster: Mind and Morals in the Early Republic, University Press of America.

Tiersma, P. (1999). Legal Language. London, The University of Chicago Press.

Trosborg, A. (ed.) Text typology an translation, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Wierzbicka, A. (1994) Semantic primitives across languages. In C. Goddard and A. Wierzbicka (eds) Semantic and Lexical Universals, Amsterdams & Philadelphia: Benjamins

Zgusta, L (2006), Lexicography Then and now, Niemeyer Max Verlag.

2. ENCYCLOPEDIES AND DICTIONARIES

Collins: Modern Home Dictionary.

Burkett, Eva Mae. (1939). American Dictionaries of the English Language before 1861, New York.

Drabik, L., Sobol, E., (2007) Akademia Języka Polskiego PWN, Słownik Języka Polskiego, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa.

Green, J. 1996. Chasing the Sun. Dictionary-Makers and the Dictionaries They Mad, London: Jonathan Cape.

Longman, (1985), Dictionary of Applied Linguistics

Oxford Wordpower (2008), Słownik angielsko - polski, polsko - angielski, Oxford University Press.

Rabin, D., C. Forget, (1998) The Dictionary of Beer and Brewing. Brewer Publications Boulder, Colorado.

Starnes, D.T./ Noyes, G.E. (1946). The English Dictionary from Cawdrey to Johnson, 1604-1755. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

The Oxford English Dictionary (2009), Oxford University Press.

3. WEBPAGES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology

Korpus Języka Polskiego Wydawnictwa Naukowego PWN. [online] Available from: http://korpus.pwn.pl

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary

"Beer". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-66615/beer. ; Michael M. Homan, 'Beer and Its Drinkers: An Ancient near Eastern Love Story, Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 2004)

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intimate%20borrowing?r=14

Appendix 1

BEER STYLES

India Pale Ale For beer lovers, India Pale Ale still evokes images of tall-masted sailing ships and the Taj Mahal.
Brown Ale Before 1700, nearly all beers were brown ales but "brown ale" as a specific beer style is a relatively modern invention.
Pilsner Pilsner is the classic lager style that emerged from the Czech Republic in 1841 to become the most common style of beer brewed worldwide.
Amber Ale American amber ale does not have a long, distinguished history, unless you include it in the centuries-old saga of English pale ale.
American Pale Ale Pale ale is the prototypical English beer style, born at the dawn of the Industrial Age and popularized at the height of empire
Wheat Beer America's 1400 small brewers have revived the ages-old practice of making beers with wheat in addition to barley.

Culler, J. (1976). Structuralist poetics: structuralism, linguistics, and the study of literature. Cornell: Cornell University Press. s. 21 - 22

(ibid.: 22)

Gumovskaya, G., English for special purposes, Uniwersytet Warszawski Katedra Języków Specjalistycznych, Warszawa 2005, s.7

Gumovskaya, G., English for special purposes, Uniwersytet Warszawski Katedra Języków Specjalistycznych, Warszawa 2005, s.7-8.

Sebeok, A., ed. 1960,Style of Language, New York - London.

Longman, (1985), Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, s. 159

(ibid.:264)

(ibid.:242)

Schroder, H (ed.) (1991) Subiect - Oriented Texts, Languages for Special Purposes and Text Theory, Berlin., s.4

Mayer, F (ed.)(2001) Language for special purposes: perspectives for the New millenium. Vol. 1. Linguistic and cognitive aspects, knowledge representation and computational linguistics, terminology, lexicograpfy and didactics. Tubingen: Narr., s.105

Tiersma, P. (1999). Legal Language. London: The University of Chicago Press. s.108

Lukszyn, J., W. Zmarzer. 2001.Teoretyczne podstawy terminologiii. Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa s.21

(ibid.)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology

Zgusta, L (2006), Lexicography Then and now, Niemeyer Max Verlag, s. 14

Bartmiński, J (2001) Współczesny Język Polski, Lublin (translated mine)

Doroszewski, W (1973) Elements of lexicology and semiotics, Mouton, s. 36

Bergenholtz, H.,U. Kaufmann. 1997, Terminography and Lexicography. A critical Survey of Dictionaries from a Single Specialised Field, Hermes, Journal of Linguistic, 18, 91 - 99.

Lukszyn, J. ed. 2001. Metajęzyk lingwistyki. Wydawnictwo “AQUILA”Stanisław Finołowicz, Warszawa.

Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge University Press.

Granger, S., Meunier, F. (ed.) (2008), Phraseology, an interdisciplinary perspective, John Benjamins Publishing Company, s. 6

Oxford Wordpower (2008), Słownik angielsko - polski, polsko - angielski, Oxford University Press, s. 212

Korpus Języka Polskiego Wydawnictwa Naukowego PWN. [online] Available from: http://korpus.pwn.pl

The Oxford English Dictionary (2009), Oxford University Press

Drabik, L., Sobol, E., Akademia Języka Polskiego PWN, Słownik Języka Polskiego, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2007r. s. 565

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary

Collins: Modern Home Dictionary

Bloomfield, L., (2005) Language, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi

Haugen, Einar (1950): “The analysic of linguistic borrowing”. Language 26, s.210-231.

Haugen, Einar (1950): The analysic of linguistic borrowing. Language 26, s.210-231.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intimate%20borrowing?r=14

Arnold, John P. Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology.

"Beer". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-66615/beer. ; Michael M. Homan, 'Beer and Its Drinkers: An Ancient near Eastern Love Story, Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 2004), pp. 84-95

2

---