OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

- Pre-old English literature - 450-700

- Early-old English literature - 700 - 900

- Late-old English literature - 900 - 1100

Old English/Anglo-Saxon initial period is known as Dark Ages; we haven't got any written records of that period

4 MAJOR ENGLISH MANUSCRIPTS CONTAINING ENGLISH TEXTS:

- The Junius Manuscript [also known as Caedman Manuscript]

- The Exeter Book

- The Vercelli Book

- MS Cotton Vitellius/ Nowell Codex [Beowulf]

4 MAIN DIALECTS:

- Kentish [Kent and Surrey]

- West Saxon [the rest of the region south of the Thames]

- Mercian [between the Thames and the Humber]

- Northumbrian [ between the Humber and the Firth of Forth]

Almost all OE literature is written in West Saxon. Modern English developed from Mercian.

INFLUENCES UPON OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

- Christianity

* texts originally pagan were transformed

* Christian interpretations

* interpolation

- Literature of Antiquity

* in translations

* in special adaptations

- Legends and the historical material of the Germanic peoples

- Collection of orally transmitted stories

THE FEATURES OF OLD-ENGLISH POETRY

- prevalence of compound words

- frequent use of pronouns instead of nouns

- the lack of explanatory detail [swiftness of narrative]

Alliteration - repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of stressed syllable

Alliterative meter - it occurs when a line of a poem is divided into the halves by a middle caesura; these two halves are relatively equal, in both we have stressed syllables and both halves are linked by alliteration

Caesura - an audible pause that breaks up a line of verse; in most cases it is indicated by punctuation marks which cause a pause in speech: a comma, a semicolon, a full stop etc.

End-stopped lines - it is when a line convey one thought or sentence

Run-on-line [enjambment] - when a thought does not end but is carried on to the second line

Kennings - poetic circumlocution for ordinary names, a kind of simile; a poetic description of a thing, stressing its new qualities

Synthetic language - giving greater freedom in syntax because of free word order [it possesses an inflectional style]

Formulaic language - creating new expressions for non-ordinary events, introduction of some new words into the language in the form of some compound

COURTLY POETRY

- Elegiac poems

* transitory nature of worldly matters

* comparison between the past [glory] and the present [delay]

* a sense of laws [on one hand], consolation [on the other]

WIDSITH - Old English poem, probably from the 7th century, that is preserved in the Exeter Book, a 10th-century collection of Old English poetry. “Widsith” is an idealized self-portrait of a scope (minstrel) of the Germanic heroic age who wandered widely and was welcomed in many mead halls, where he entertained the great of many kingdoms. Because the heroic figures the minstrel claims to have visited range from the 4th to the 6th century, the poem is obviously a fictitious account; nevertheless, it is an ingenious compendium of the important figures in Germanic hero legend and a remarkable record of the scope's role in early Germanic society.

DEOR'S LAMENT - (42 lines) An elegiac monologue of a scope named Deor who loses the favour of his lord and is displaced by another minstrel. He takes comfort from the misfortunes of famous characters from history or legends whose suffering sooner or later came to an end. Poet's awareness of the transitory nature of all things an of human life is summed up in the refrain: “that passed over, so can this”

THE WANDERER - the speaker lost his lord, his lord is dead and because of that the speaker has lost his host on the lord's court. Solitary is a life of despair. There is something that consoles the speaker [the voice of wisdom]. God is a source of consolation, all material things are transitory, you can find true joy.

SEAFARER - (about 130 lines) The Seafarer sings of the desire of his spirit which urges him to journey forth over the flowing sea, far across the hills of water and the whale's country to seek the land of strangers... No mind has he for harp, nor gift of ring, nor delight in women, nor joy in the world, nor concern with anything else save the rolling of the waves...

THE RUIN - an 8th century Old English poem from the Exeter Book by an unknown author. The Exeter Book is a large book dealing with mostly Christian verse with about one-third of the extant Old English poems written in it. The poem's subject is ancient Roman ruins, built of stone and having hot water, assumed to be the ruins of Aquae Sulis at modern Bath, England, and the powerful fate (Weird or Wyrd) that has reduced a once lively community and its sturdy stone buildings to ruins.

- Love poems

WIFE'S LAMENT - This poem from the Exeter Book is spoken by a woman whose husband has been outlawed because of his involvement in a feud. She followed him into exile, but for unknown reasons her husband's kinsmen schemed to separate them, with the result that she now finds herself living in a remote and desolate place with dark, pagan associations. Here she laments her own emotional torment, but also that of her husband, whom she imagines suffering from cold and loneliness.

THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE - tells the story of a man who was forced to leave his homeland and his wife due to a "feud." The poem takes place after the feud has ended. The now wealthy and established husband carves a message onto a plank of wood and sends it to his wife, recounting the past years without her, reflecting on his past misfortunes, professing his love for her and imploring her to reunite with him in his new home. Thus, the "message" becomes the physical plank of wood itself, as well as the poem's written lyrics

- Charms - written in verse with the instruction how to use them. Some of them can contain Christian elements but their tradition was pagan.

FOR A SWARM OF BEES

FOR UNFRUITFUL LAND

CHARM AGAINST A DWARF

• Riddles - short descriptions of various enigmatic objects [like a shield or ice] which must be guessed by the reader; based on Anglo-Saxon love for kennings; rich source of our knowledge about Anglo-Saxon folklore

RELIGIOUS POETRY

Interpolation - insertion of some Christian elements in the text that were originally pagan; it can be also the Christian interpretation of a typically pagan text

CAEDMON - is the earliest English poet whose name is known ; we know something about him thanks for Bede. He described him as a man who took care of cows, once fall asleep, dreamt about God Creator, he explained that he is a cowman, the voice insisted and Caedmon sang Hymn.

“CÆDMON'S HYMN” [The Hymn of Creation] - celebration of the Creation in mere 9 lines, specific form of poem: 2 stressed syllables in each half [alliterative meter]; alliteration

“GENESIS” - account of war in heaven, the fall of Lucifer, creation of Adam and Eve; poem divided into 2: Genesis 1 and 2

“DANIEL” - is an anonymous Old English poem based loosely on the Biblical Book of Daniel, found in the Junius Manuscript. The author and the date of Daniel are unknown. Critics have argued that Caedmon is the author of the poem, but this theory has been since disproved. Daniel, as it is preserved, is 764 lines long

“CHRIST AND SATAN” - it encompasses all of biblical history, linking both the Old Testament and New Testament, and expounding upon a number of conflicts between Christ and Satan

“EXODUS” - The 590-line poem, anonymous; it describes Moses and the Israelites' flight from Egypt, and the dramatic drowning of Pharaoh's army in the Red Sea

CYNEWULF - either Northumbrian or Mercian poet, lived in late VII or IX. He is one of twelve Anglo-Saxon poets known by name today, and one of four whose work survives today. He is famous for his religious compositions, and is regarded as one of the pre-eminent figures of Old English Christian poetry. He signed some of his poems in runic letters.

“JULIANA” - describe live of the saint, follows the Latin model; Juliana lived in 4^th century AD, she was murdered by Romans because she wanted to stay a virgin and she refused to get married. 1^st attempt to murder her failed and her prosecutors were converted and prosecuted and killed for faith;

“ELENE” - it is the first English account of the finding of the Holy Cross by Saint Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine. Vercelli manuscript

“THE FATE OF THE APOSTLES” - it is the shortest of Cynewulf's known canon at 122 lines long. It is a brief martyrology of the Twelve Apostles of the Bible written in the standard alliterative verse

“THE DREAM OF THE ROOD” - A 156-line poem considered the noblest example of Old English religious poetry. One of the speakers is Rood. At the beginning it's poet himself that speaks. Then, the rood tells us story about how it became from a piece of wood of cross. The story about great warrior, passion, persecution, resurrection. Reference to Anglo-Saxon culture [Wyrd], stressing the loyalty. The cross appears in the poem as a religious and historical object. It's the Christian symbol, Christ's death made it such an important thing, symbol of suffering. In the 3^rd part the poet explains how the dream of rood changed his life. 1^st speaker and his vision function as a frame.

Prosopheie [personification] - is an ontological metaphor in which a thing or abstraction is represented as a person

ANGLOSAXON PROSE

GILDAS, “The Ruin of Britain”

NENNIUS, “Historia Brittonum”

ALDHELM, “Epistola ad Arcicium”

BEDE, “Historia Ecclesiastica”

BEOWULF

STRUCTURE

- narrative poem written in verses

- it is divided into 2 parts: in the first part Hrothgar is presented as a good king and Beowulf as a good warrior; in the second: king - Beowulf, warrior - Wiglaf; it contributes to a kind of frame

THE EPIC FORM

- an extended narrative poem exalted in style and heroic in theme

- anonymous

- there are written versions of the oral legends of a tribe or a nation

- it begins by announcing the them

- great battles

- the hero is expected to die in the battle

- invocation [theme, asks questions to the muse, muse replays]

- hero takes marvelous voyages

- in battles there are monsters, warriors, hero, supernatural beings

BEOWULF is:

- an extended narrative poem exalted and heroic in style

- anonymous

- oral legend

- concerns the hero

- hero performs many deeds

- the hero died in a battle

- monster, dragon as supernatural beings

- frame structure

CHRISTIANITY IN ANGLO-SAXON TRADITION

- Grendel appears as a descendant of Cain, he is alienated, his function is to be an evil, monster, he wouldn't have a chance to be someone else, he's not expected by the community; he suffers because his ancestors did something wrong in the past

- Beowulf thinks about glory but here and now [in opposition to Christian values]

- Anglo-Saxon tradition of good divided after the victory [in opposition to Christian values]

- narrator is Christian - 3^rd person, all knowing, has inside into characters mind, tells us stories of early events [before 6^th century], some battles are named

- Beowulf is loose composition, there are digressions, refers to stories from the Bible, the narrator convinces the reader that this is a Christian text, but there are also elements from other religions

- we don't know if it is originally Pagan or Christian text

- the need for vengeance, taking the revenge [in opposition to Christian values]

BEOWULF AS AN EXAMPLE OF OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

- heroic epic, a poem, a narrative poem

- originally Beowulf existed in oral tradition

- written version comes from the beginning of 11^th century, it was created around 8 century

- bard - during feasts he tells the stories about the battles, we've got the references to some famous battles

- idea of boasting - telling by heroes themselves stories about their battles, achievements

- alliterate meter - makes the text easier to remember for bards

- kennings:

* 'rings giver' = king - specific function of the king; to protect his people, to reward for deeds, distribution of goods was deeply rooted in AS tradition

* `the Ruler of heaven' = God

* `the house of bones' = body during Beowul's funeral - everything is temporary, sooner or later our body is going to die

THE LOOSE STRUCTURE OF THE WORK:

- a lot of episodes

- digressions after which narrator comes back to the main story

4

Medieval Literature [700-1500]

Old English

literature

Middle English

literature

CAEDMON or JUNIUS MANUSCRIPT

VERCELLI MANUSCRIPT

Christianity started during Roman period [beginning of the 7^th century]. At the end of 597 monk Augustine was send by pope to England to spread Christianity.

EXETER BOOK

EXETER BOOK

BEOWULF AS AN EPIC FORM

- deeply routed in oral tradition, based on oral

- exalted in style

- noble topic

- long descriptions of customs, battles, warriors, historical events

- heroes' names presented in a way showing their attributes

- hero is exaggerated

- hero follows the code of behaviour

- a secondary epic form

- marvelous voyages

- marvelous creatures, supernatural elements

- epic simile [extended, long]

The Junius Manuscript

Genesis

Exodus

Daniel

Christ and Satan

Caedmon Hymn

The Exeter Book

Juliana

The Wanderer

The Seafarer

Widsith

The Wife's Lament

The Husband's Message

The Ruin

The Vercelli Book

Dream of the Rood

The Fates of the Apostles

Nowell Codex

Beowulf

Judith

Pearl

Cleanness

Patience

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Old English texts were created at royal courts and in monasteries

Most of the texts were ANONIMOUS because poets thought that the names are not as important as text itself

Elegy - a mournful, melancholic or plaintive poem, especially a funeral song or a lament for the dead

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