A Descriptive Grammar of English (Part 3)

Lecture Two. The Grammar of the Sentence and the Meaning Related to Speech Acts

(An Outline and Notes)

The purpose of the lecture: To extend description of interpersonal meaning in English beyond modality: clause types in different speech acts, their referential and representational content, the message, the straightforwardness and tentativeness of utterances depending on concrete modal verbs and modal phraseology; different communicative types of utterances and their sophistication; politeness.

An Outline

1. Speech acts (a definition) and their types.

2. Clauses/utterances relevant to different speech acts.

3. Clause structure determined by different speech acts. Directness and tentativeness of the clause

4. Politeness and communicative functions of different utterances. Meaning in context.

5. Ways of realizing speech acts

6. Clause types related to different speech acts

7. Modality in different types of utterances:

1. declaratives and interrogatives;

2. warnings, advice and suggestions;

3. permissions and prohibitions;

4. requests;

5. commissives (offers, invitations, promises);

8. Non-modal expressions related to speech acts.

9. Speech acts and the use of verba loquendi (= verbs of speaking)

10. Politeness and its functions (self esteem and dignity of the speaker and the listener).

Politeness and the meaning of verbal expression.

11. Grammatical categories in relation to politeness. The structure of speech acts and politeness.

Recommended Reading

Ronald Carter, Michael McCarthy. The Cambridge Grammar of English. - CUP, 2007,

680-713: 408-423a-e.

Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik. A Communicative Grammar of English. - Longman, 1991.

* * *

1. A descriptive grammar of English provides first of all a formal description of structures and patterns in grammar. Their sense and application may be outlined in contexts of their use, which are related to speech acts. Speech acts refer to the speakers' performance, i.e. “to what the speaker or writer is doing in uttering a particular form of words”. (CGE, 680: 408). Such utterances as Come here! and Can you pass me that book? mean directions and request, respectively, as a rule. Their functional meaning as identified here may be seen in contrast with the formal meaning of the utterances. For example, the second utterance may formally mean a question of someone's ability but the context excludes this meaning as a rule. “Speech acts are concerned with the speaker's intention rather than the content-meaning of the utterance”. (CGE, 680:408) Interpersonal meaning plays a significant role in an explanation of the sense of utterances in relation to speech acts. That is why this topic features in a descriptive grammar of English.

2. In a descriptive grammar of English, speech acts are found to divide into five broad types:

1. Constatives, in which “the speaker asserts something about the truth of a proposition, associated with affirming, claiming, concluding, denying, …, predicting or stating beliefs” (CGE, 680: 408). This kind of speech acts is typical of academic communication, news reporting or radio commentary.

2. Directives, in which “the speaker intends to make the hearer act in a particular way, associated with acts such as: advising, asking, challenging, commanding, daring, forbidding, insisting, instructing, permitting, prohibiting”, etc. (CGE, 680:408). Directives are typical of most spoken and of some of written communication in close social or business relations between the participants.

3. Commissives, in which “the speaker commits to a course of action, associated with acts such as: guaranteeing, offering, inviting, promising, vowing, undertaking” (CGE, 680: 408). Commissives are typical of any professional business communication in finding an agreement or in signing a contract.

4. Expressives (or acknowledgements), in which “the speaker expresses an attitude or reaction concerning the state of affairs associated with… appologising, appreciatin, complementing, condemning, …, regretting, thanking, (CGE, 680: 408). Expressives are typical of any cultured communication.

5. Declarations, in which “the speaker performs the speech act solely by making the utterance” which confirms his power and duty to state something relevant to the situation (I pronounce you man and wife; I declare this meeting closed; I name this ship The Royal George) (CGE, 680:408). Declarations are typical of formal communication and ceremonies.

In describing how different clause structure contribute to different kinds of speech acts, the use of modal verbs in different functions, and the currency of verbs of speaking (verba dicendi) will be reviewed. Verbal expression related to politeness and to the organising functions in speech acts (their openings, maintenance, closing and turn taking) will be mentioned.

3. Verbal expression in speech acts is not unlimited or unpredictable. As speech acts are realised in and reflect the routinely structured communication, they are performed by using definite verbal resources, such as: a) formulaic utterances (Hello! Congratulations! Excuse me. It's very kind of you, etc), b) explicit lexical items, such as verbs of speaking (I pronounce…, My advice is…, I promise… etc), c) typical syntactical patterns (Was I surprised! You meant to say something… Did you want to say something? etc), d) modal verbs and constructions (Can I get you a drink? You must be patient. You might like to know…etc) and prosodic means (all variety of tones in question tags, rising intonation in a declarative clause, You'll be arriving late?, which makes it a question, etc).(CGE,681-2:409)

4. Different types of clauses are often indicate a respective speech act by their functional category. For instance, a declarative clause (He works in London) functions like a statement in a constative speech act, and interrogative clause (How long did it take?) functions like a question in a directive speech act, an imperative (Put it all in a pile here) functions like a directive in the same speech act or an exclamation (How nice you look!) functions like an exclamation in an expressive speech act. However, this is not an obligatory dependence of different clause types on identical speech acts. For example, a declarative clause may function like a question (So you're going to be here about quarter past?), a command (You sit there.), an offer (I'll hold that for you.) or an exclamation (There's a rat!) in respective speech acts. An interrogative clause may function like a command (Will you be quiet!), a request (Could you carry this for me?) and an intensified statement or an exclamation (Was I embarrassed when I realised what had happened!) . An imperative clause, for example, may function as a warning about a particular course of action (Do that again and I'm going to smack you.) or as an offer (Have a banana.) in respective speech acts. (CGE, 682: 410)

5. There are other distinct uses of definite clause types. Apart from being statements, declarative clauses may notably function as questions. E.g.:

`It's a little terraced house. And sort of very old-fashioned but clean and cosy.'

`Oh well'.

/…/ `And a thousand and something a month.'

`Yeah. So you're pleased?

`Oh I'm relieved. Yes. Yes.'

`So you had a good day at work then?'

`Yes it was all right.' (CGE, 683: 410a)

The declarative question may also be used as a comprehension check (= sprawdzenie zrozumienja). E.g.: `I'm ringing just to see if everything was okay…'

`Ah. No, he said … there were some fonts missing, Chris.'

`There were some fonts missing?'

`Yes.' (CGE, 683: 410a)

The intonation is usually rising in declarative questions. It may be falling when a strong assumption is implied. When the speaker repeats a declarative question as a request for confirmation, it may be spoken with a rising tone and be heard as a question ( `I've got her number.' / `You've got her number?' / `Yeah.'). “The repeated utterance may also have a falling intonation and may be heard as expressing a doubt, which the speaker may also interpret as questioning”. (CGE, 724-725: 430)

6. Interrogative clauses with modal verbs may function as commands, instructions or requests

(Could you do it for me? You might address the Director straight.)in directive speech acts because the bare imperative ( E.g.: Try to do it. Go and say what you mean.) may sound “extremely forceful and in many cases impolite in English” (E.g.: Will you look at your handouts, now, please. Can you shut that door?). (CGE, 683: 410b)

7. Commands, instructions and the indirect types of these kinds of utterances (warnings,

requests, advice, suggestions, permissions) are typical in directive speech acts and realize them. Commands and instructions are intended to influence the listener to act in a desired way, but these kinds of utterances may have a variety of forms with modal verbs which imply a different degree of compulsion in the instruction.

Declaratives with can function as polite commands and instructions. E.g.: `You can just leave that on the draining board. I'll wash it later.' `The price of it is one twenty four by two, and sixty two pounds for the little boy. So in total that's three hundred and ten pounds. … If you can just keep your receipt and check it against your statement.'/ `Okay.' (CGE, 685: 413a)

Declaratives with must have a stronger compulsory sense in instructions. E.g.:(1) `You must be clear on what the right answer is. Because you're gonna mark some of these answers.' (2) `With all clients you must attempt to complete all relevant areas of the questionnaire.'

(3) (spoken to a PhD student) `I think you must aim for three years.'

The authors of the CGE warn the student that directives with must are very strong in English “and should be used with care, especially in contexts such as suggesting and advising”. Such directives are usually used by people in authority. Even in such cases, directives with must may be softened by inserting a clause like I think, I believe, I suppose, etc. (CGE, , 685-6:413b).

Declaratives with will and shall occur “in commands in very formal styles, but are arare in everyday conversation”. E.g. (3) `You can't come in here. Who asked you in? You will please leave, this minute.' (4) `Arthur, you must repent!' cried I, in a frenzy of desperation, … `You shall say you are sorry for what you have done!' (5) `There Fanny, you shall carry that parcel for me - take great care of it - do not let it fall; …' (CGE, 686: 413c)

Declaratives with shall are not only formal; they are archaic and appear mainly in literary styles to express commands.

More tentative commands may be given by using declarative clauses with you're going to and the interrogative form with would you like to. E.g.: (6) (Spoken by a swimming instructor to learners) Legs nice and straight. No knees popping out of the water. And you're gonna look at that window for me. I don't want anybody looking at me. Or here. You're looking up. Right. … Off you go. (7) (Spoken by a teacher to the student) Would you like to tell the rest of the class your own definition of what a tower block is? (CGE, 686-7: 413d)

Commands and other directives may sound softer or more polite if they are made with the help of interrogative clauses with the modals can, could, will or would rather than of bare imperatives. E.g.: (8) (Spoken by mother to a very small child who picks a knife at the table) Will you put that down darling. That's dangerous, that is. (9) (Spoken by an adult carer to a child) Be careful David. No! Can you go and take that somewhere else please because you're going to break something aren't you? (10) (Spoken by a chiropractor examining a patient) `Anf how have you been Nigel? All right?' / `Well not too bad.' / Could you raise your left leg. (`Raise your left leg' would be a more direct command). (11) (Spoken by a chairperson at a business meeting) Shall we just look at one or two documents that you've already looked at please, would you go to page twenty-nine. (CGE, 687: 413e)

Commands with the modal will are most direct, while can, could and would are heard as progressively less direct and more polite. (CGE, 413e).

8. Warnings , advice and suggestions appear in directives, commissives and expressives.

“Warnings are speech acts in which the speaker states the possible negative outcome of a particular course of action for the listener”, although the listener may choose how to react. … Advice is a speech act where the speaker expresses their view of how the listener or others ought best to act to solve a problem or achieve a goal”, but the listener may choose a course of action. Suggestions are speech acts where the speaker proposes a course of action for the listener or others, which may include the speaker.” The listener is free to choose a course of action. (CGE, 687: 414) Different clauses and their types in their function of suggestion and advice-giving will be reviewed before warnings.

Declaratives with can, could, may and might all can be used in making suggestions.

Declaratives with can and could are very frequent clauses used in making suggestions. E.g.: (12) (Spoken when discussing possibilities for making framed pictures as craft items to sell)

`You can make little designs. / `We can do like little designs to put in them can't we. … And sell them off as like individual little pictures.' (13) (Speakers are discussing the problems of camping out…) `We don't wanna have to pack them up every time we go out.' /

`We could stay in a hotel.' (14) [Speakers are planning of how to organize a set of personal

accounts] ‚We need a register for deposits.` / You could have four columns. You could have ‚opening`, ‚deposit`, ‚withdrawal` ‚closing`.

„The modal could is generally heard as less forceful than can and is much more frequent.“

„Could always is often used in making suggestions in everyday conversation: (15) [Spoken about a guide book for a trip the speakers are planning] `Most probably I can get this from the libraries.' / `Yeah. I'll go and get it out to morrow.' / `Or you could always get Lonely Planet, Japan.'(i.e a guide book so called) / ` `Yeah. Buy it.' (CGE, 688: 414a)

Declaratives with may are used in advice-giving and suggestions. These utterances typically occur in formulaic expressions may as well, may (well) find (that), may want/wish to. E.g.: (16) Travellers intending to fly from Canada are likely to find that, with less competition on these routes … fares are somewhat higher than they are for flights wholly within the US. You may well find that it's worth the effort to get to a US city first, and fly on to California from there. (17) [Advice to language teachers in a teaching manual] Give students ten minutes or so to prepare and pratise their conversations. … If they come up with amusing dialogues, you may want to let them perform for the class. (CGE, 688: 414a)

Declaratives with might are also used to make suggestions. They are particularly frequent in the routine expression you might want to: (18) `I think there's an argument for thinking that's part of the verb phrase. But you might look at that.' (19) You might want to move ytour chair a little bit closer.' (20) `The only other person I think that you might want to come and talk to is Patricia Matthews. /…/ And you might want to come and talk to her about what are realistic options in terms of funding this course. (CGE, 689: 414a)

Might as well and might (just) as well are often used in making suggestions in everyday conversation, and the second phrase is more frequent: (21) `I'm quite happy to go. I'll take that. I may as well take the tray back anyway. (22) We might as well go to the cinema. (23) You might as well fill all the details you've got down on that front page. (CGE, 691: 414e)

Although it is assumed that there are no negative questions in English, negative interrogatives with can and could are often used in suggestions and advice-giving. E.g.:

(24) `They're cactuses, those ones. Like, where you get all the dust.' / `Can't you get some sprays like anti-dust sprays?' /…/ `Or can't you just spray it with water?' (25) `Well did you not say that to them? Can you not organize your own travel a bit?' (26) `That always happens to my jumpers.' / `That's dreadful though. Could you not send it back?'

Declaratives with ought to express suggestions and advice in everyday conversation: (27) `Er, I think we ought to turn these radiators down you know.' / `It is roasting hot in here isn't it. (28) They were saying, `Well this isn't good enough, you ought to complain.' I said, “I just don't like complaining.' (CGE, 691-2: 414f)

9. Numerous declaratives with a few modals are used typically to express warnings and advice.

Declaratives with must are utterances which express warnings and strong advice. E.g.: (29) `…you seem to be losing weight rapidly.' `Well, I can only eat certain things.' / `I mean you must take care.' (30) I can give you some oven cleaner. But the problem with it is you must make sure you get all of it off. And they mustn't use it while you're doing it because it's very strong. Don't get it on your hands either. It's really very very strong. And you must make sure it all washes off before they use it again. (CGE, 690: 414c)

Utterances with must are stronger and more forceful in advice-giving than utterances with should or could. Therefore they are less frequent in everyday conversations.

Declaratives with should occur in warnings and advice as well as in suggestions: (31) `You know you should never open one of these like that don't you? (32) `But London, I think you should try London.' (33) `It's the smoke alarm that's beeping (= making short high sounds= piszczy). We should put a new battery in. (CGE, 690-1: 414d)

Personal utterances with had better (not) are used to give warnings and strong advice: (34) You'd better move your car Pete cos I'm sure somebody's gonna nip in (= wkrecic sie) and steal that trailer (= przyczepa). (35) [Spoken with reference to car headlights] `You've left your lights on. You'd better go and turn them off. (36) You'd better get an early night if you're going to be up early. (37) You'd better not post that letter.

Had better is a strong expression and is not appropriate when making ordinary suggestions or recommendations. It is “used when the speaker thinks there will be negative consequences if the desired action is not taken. Therefore when speaking of entertainment places the following is used: `I recommend you go to the Tokyo Tower in Shibaura. If you go to the top of the tower you will see a view of most of Tokyo. At night go to Aoyama where you can find many nice restaurants.' (CGE, 692: 414h)

10. Permissions (= pozwolenja) and prohibitions (= zabranianja) appear in directive speech acts (or in directives). “Permissions are concerned with requesting and granting freedom for someone to act in a particular way. Prohibitions deny freedom of action.” Permissions and prohibitions are expressed while varying the use of the same modal verbs in declarative, interrogative and negative utterances.

11. “Declaratives with can and may are used to give permission. May is more formal than can and is rare in everyday conversation for giving permission”: (38) She asked if she could come and stay so I said `Of course you can.' (39) Mum says you can eat as much fruit as you want. (40) You acknowledge that the material … contained within the Website … is for your personal use only and that you may not download such material… (CGE, 693: 415-415a)

12. Can, could, may and might can all be used in interrogative utterances to ask for permission to do something. “Can I is the least formal and most direct, could I is more formal and less direct, and may I is the most formal and least direct of the three. May I to ask permission is infrequent in informal conversation. Might I is very formal and rare.” E.g.: (41) `This is a new book, `New Directions in the teaching of Languages', isn't it? Can I borrow it for a week or so? And then I'll give it back to you then.' / `Yeah. Sure.' (42) Could we have this room for the next hour?' / `Yes, you can. But don't forget to lock it though when you've finished.' (43) `May I use your phone, Christopher? I'd like to call the shop.' / `Sure.' (44) `Might I speak to Mrs Lutterworth?' said Willow. /'I am not sure that she's in. Who is it who wants her?' / `My name is Woodruffe, Cressida Woodruffe. I'm a writer and I'm doing some research for a novel about an architect.' (CGE, 693: 415b)

A polite form of asking for permission to do something are questions Would you mind if… and Do you mind if… . The past tense in the if-clause is more formal, while the present tense is more informal. E.g.: (45)' Do you mind if I take my shoes off?' / `No.' `Do you mind if I sit here?' / `No, not at all. Please do.' (46) Would you mind if one of our representatives comes and gives you a free demonstration? (47) `Would you mind if I turned this off just for a few minutes?' “ N o t e that the appropriate reply to give permission is no, not yes. Mind means `object', so saying no means `I do not object to what you wish to do'. (CGE, 695: 415e)

Sometimes and less frequently, “an object pronoun or a noun phrase and a verb in the -ing for may follow the lexical verb mind: (48) Would you mind us coming too? Do you mind me sitting in on the interview? Do you mind this towel being used? In formal contexts, a possessive pronoun may be used instead of an object pronoun: (49) `Do you mind my smoking?' he asked. `Oh, not at all, sir.' (CGE, 695: 415e)

Asking for permission or leave (= pozwolenie formalny) to do something in conversation is frequent in turn-taking when a new speaker intends to speak, to ask a question, to mention something or comment on something. In such cases, phrases like can I ask a question, could I also mention that…, may I ask who…, Would you mind a question? and similar ones are current. (CGE, 696: 415f)

13. The sense of prohibiting or forbidding something may be conveyed while using can't, mustn't or (more formally) may not. E.g.: (50) `… they're standing there.' / `Right.' / Because when the train is passing they can't be doing anything. / `They can't, no. That's right.' /…/ `You mustn't be within eight foot of the train.' (51) `Miss, I've written a story,' / `Right.' [to another pupil] `No you may not draw a picture. This has got to do with work.'

As the illustrative example show, all these modal verbs are strong in a prohibiting sense, while may is most formal.

14. When used with the third and second person of personal pronouns, shall not means a strong prohibition and “ occurs in very formal/literary contexts. It is rare in such acts”: (52) `He shall not go,' she said slowly, one word at a time. `Do you hear me? Cromwell is not going to the front.'

“Will not is also very formal, but is more frequent than shall not. Its formal sense is obvious in written documents: (53) Then the judge folded his arms and began to speak rapidly, … `I hereby grant the exclusion order, in the name of Frank Little and Eleanor Little. You will give an undertaking to leave the jurisdiction within seventy-two hours. /…/ You will surrender your visa to the clerk of the court immediately. You will not approach any embassy, consulate or honorary consulate of the Popular republic of Nicaragua for the purpose of obtaining a visa for a period of three months.' (CGE, 694-5: 415d)

The meaning of prohibition with will not and shall not as with other modals depends considerably on the meaning of the lexical verb in the phrase. If the student reconsiders the examples above, he will be convinced that the meaning of the lexical verb has a role to play in the prohibitive meaning of the utterance.

15. In the forms of utterances asking for permission to do some thing above, polite questions with different modal and modal phrases were enumerated. There is a distinct type of utterances in directive speech acts related to asking for permission to do something. They are requests. Requests are directive utterances which express a speaker's desire of a particular course of action. In obtaining what he requests, the speaker has a greater choice than in commands whether to act in the way indicated. “Requests and commands occasionally overlap, as a command may be softened by making it seem more like a request”. This is often done for the sake of politeness. (CGE, 696: 416)

Requests can be commonly realised by interrogatives with can, could, will and would.”Could is generally heard as more polite than can, and would is heard as more polite than will”. E.g.: (54) `Can you drop me off at the garage on Long Road?' / `Yeah, sure.' (55) `Could you help me with these loads?' / `Certainly.' (56) `Could you have a look?' / `What, now?' / `Well, er where are you speaking?'/ `In the kitchen.' / `Are you on your mobile?' / `Yeah.'/ `Can you go and see whether it's in those jeans?'/ … `Oh okay.'

Requests are also realised by negative declaratives with couldn't and wouldn't , which are often followed by an affirmative tag. E.g.: (57) `Erm, you couldn't find a copy of `Hamlet', could you, Ann?' / `Mm?' (58) `It doesn't tell you how to calculate it. You wouldn't ring Roland and ask?' / `Yeah.' (CGE, 697: 416b)

Utterances with Would you like to… are a polite form of requests. They are less forceful than will you or would you. E.g.: (59) [Spoken to a child] Would you like to go and play with your toys now? (60) Would you like to join the guests at the coffee table? (CGE, 698: 416d)

Utterances with might also appear in requests but the are formal and rare in everyday conversation: (61) Tim decided to keep up the pressure. `You might tell me what this son of yours is like. I mean, does he look like a Waites? Or does he take after his mother?'(CGE, 698: 416c)

Requests is a sensitive unit in directive speech acts. Requests differ in their tentativeness and politeness. Requests are very tender in English, especially to children.

16. Commissives are speech acts in which “the speaker commits to a course of action”. They are

associated with offering inviting and promising. Offers utterances in these speech acts “in which the speker volunteers to do something beneficial for the listener (or a third party)”. Offers are typically realize by declaratives and interrogatives with can, could and may.E.g.:

(62) I can get directions for you. That's not a problem. (63) I could wake you up at eight if you wanted. (64) `Can I get you a cold drink?' /'That would be nice. Thanks.' (65) `Jim's arriving at six and I'm waiting for a call from Janet.' / `Could one of us pick him up (meet him and collect him) for you?' / `Well, that'd be very kind of you.'

Declaratives with `ll are common in offers and they are accompanied by shall I or will I in the tag. E.g.: (66) `I'll come and give you a hand, shall I?' / `Yeah.' (67) `Nick'll carry that for you'. / `Oh thanks.'

Shall I and Will I in offers are used analogously to Can I / Could I (see above): (68) Shall I make you a drink, would you like tea or coffee? Shall we eat out tonight? Will I take a group photograph? (CGE, 700: 418d)

To make an offer, utterances with What about, what if, how about, Would you like, Will you have and Do you want are frequent and they function like formulaic expressions.

Invitations offer someone an opportunity to do or to share something. Phrases Would you like to, Do you want to, You must… and You'll have to… often open up invitations to the listener or the company. E.g.: (69) Would you like to come to dinner on Friday night? Do you want to come? (70) And you must come down to Barr some day. (71) You'll have to come round for a coffee. (CGE, 701-2: 419-419a-c)

Promises and undertakings mean commitment of the speaker to a course of action. Promises are expressed by full and abbreviated form of the modals shall and will. E.g.: (72) Don't worry, I will be there. (73) `When the war's over , you shall have clean water.' (74) I'll give him fifty pounds towards his computer. (CGE, 702-3: 420-420a)

17. There are non-modal expressions to make suggestions, give advice or make offers which

Function as formulaic utterances in different speech acts. They are What about, What if, How about, Why don't you and Why not. E.g.: What about a drink? What if I set the table? Erm how's about kind of half eight-ish? What about you? If that's what you think, why don't you go and teach English in Russia? Well, why not go outside for funding?

18. Verbs of speaking, such as: advice, agree, insist, promise, apologise, ask, agree, deny, demand, permit, predict, state, suggest and others explicitly label a speech act and add weight to the utterances that follow. They also emphasise the speaker's commitment and serious intention. E.g.: (75) `You're a bit late.' / `I apologise'. (76) As soon as she comes back, I promise I'll ask her. (Cf.: As soon as she comes back, I'll ask her.) (77) I promise you you'll regret it later if you don't study now. (= I warn you that you'll regret it). Reporting verbs also name speech acts and make language somewhat formal. (CGE, 707:422)

19. Many utterances with modals, which realize different speech acts, have displayed aspects

of politeness and indirectness. Politeness is such a disposition of the speaker which creates

conditions for the company to be pleased with the speaker and with themselves. More

specifically, “politeness serves to protect the self-esteem and dignity of the speaker and

listener… It is an important aspect of interpersonal meaning, and enables communication to

proceed harmoniously.” As the illustrative examples above have shown, most of the

utterances with modal verbs soften the force of the speech act and contribute to politeness.

(CGE, 708-9: 422b, 423).

A summary and the student's gain. The material of the present lecture has shown that interpersonal meaning in different speech acts is realised by the standard patterns of the English sentence. Except for a few phrases like Yeah, cos, eight-ish, the phraseology and the vocabulary have also represented Standard English. It is possible to conclude therefore that a description of basically spoken English indicates that, with only a few exceptions, the structure and the vocabulary of spoken English is of general currency and is acceptable both in speech and in writing. What have we learned? The modality of spoken English utterances has been interpreted in reverse order from that given in Lecture 1 on modality. In this lecture we first defined the purpose of utterances and then described their suitability for the context.

Recommended Reading

Ronald Carter, Michael McCarthy. The Cambridge Grammar of English. - CUP, 2007.

Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik. A Communicative Grammar of English. - Longman, 1991.

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