Walt Whitman – General
A part of the transcendentalist movement (Emerson, Thoreau)
Two differences between him and the Transcendentalists:
For him the body and the soul are equally important
The use of the “street language”
Attitude of Emerson: Walt Whitman as a man whom he dreamed up
Leaves of Grass – the only collection of poems he published during his life
The project of expanding one and the same set of poems
Apart from adding new poems to the Leaves of Grass he also revised the existing pomes (5 versions of Song of Myself)
Whitman thought that the poetry should be the reflection of the world: his poetry expands
The Preface:
The Americans have the fullest poetical nature. The US are essentially the greatest poem
The genius of the US is in common people
The US most need poets and will have the greatest and use them
Vision of the poet:
The greatest has less a marked style and is more the channel of thoughts and things without increase or domination and is the free channel of himself
The messages of great poets to each men and women are: Come to us on equal terms/Only then can you understand us, / We are no better than you, / What we enclose, you enclose, / What we enjoy you may enjoy
The channel = the poet as a translator of thoughts
The Philosphy of Composition Poe vs. The Preface Whitman:
Who troubles himself about his ornaments or fluency is lost.
The poetic quality is not marshalled in rhyme or uniformity or abstract addresses to things nor in melancholy complaints or good precepts, but is the life of these and much else and is in the soul.
The young poets in the US in the 19th century had a choice: to be like Poe or to be like Whitman
Poet of democracy
Subject matter
All-embracing
Equality
Collective persona
Form
Free verse
Language
Devices
Influence
Ezra Pound The Cantos
Hart Crane The Bridge
Wallace Stevens Notes Towards a Supreme Fiction
William Carlos Williams Paterson
Charles Olson The Maximus Poems
Song of Myself
The name “Whitman” appears only once; and at the beginning of the poem, takes us on the journey and teaches us how to see the world
A shamanic history, a visionary poem – poet goes into a mystical trance, proceeds on a mystical journey of discoveries, then reports knowledge
Oversoul
Free verse – free unbound American spirit, a free person speaks freely
Devices: catalogue [goes back to the Iliad] – not to establish hierarchy, but to show equality, multiplicity, diversity, etc.
Large descriptive poem
He believes in the flesh, because seeing, hearing, feeling are miracles
His body as divinity, the prayer to the body
The poet of good and wicked
Whitman vs. Emerson
As Emerson was transcendental, Whitman was transcendental and mystical. The reason Emerson may have hesitated in his support of Whitman's publishing the sexually explicit poems was possibly because Emerson had not yet reached the sort of mystical realm that Whitman had.
Emerson's doctrine of self-trust asserts that every man should commune with the divinity of (or the animating over-soul) within himself (Miller, 136). Yet it was difficult for Emerson to accept Whitman's belief that (his) own celebrated sexuality was (for him) his assertion of self. It might be said that Emerson was bound to a more conformed code of ethics and Whitman was exploring the open road. As Emerson felt free to write about the self and self-reliance, it was Whitman who truly embodied the doctrine of self-assertion.
Walt Whitman was then no mere transcendentalist, nor was his work the time's normal transcendental piece. Emerson said to Whitman about his work, "I give you joy of your free and brave thought" (136). Emerson found that Whitman practiced what the ideal American scholar should, "In self-trust all the virtues are comprehended. Free should the scholar be--free and brave" (136). Yet Emerson asked Whitman not to publish some of his poems because of the sexual content.
Through sexual energy Whitman identifies with the fundamental generative forces in nature. In sexual identity and experience a person may discover harmony and unity with nature, the life force that subterraneously unites all into one creative whole. (129). Thus it is Whitman's vision--awakened through personal experience--that the human sexual nature is actually parallel to nature's own constant sexual energy.
Whitman was not bound by societal expectations--Emerson believed in heterosexual sex, or at least it was the only kind of sexual relationship he could publicly attest to. So Whitman was Emerson's risk taker and the transcendental poet of America.
Perhaps Whitman's "omnisexual" preferences were not easily understood by Emerson, but for Whitman self-discovery was rooted and intensified through sexual experience. His sexual preferences--or the fact that he did not have one--suggest he was extremely awakened to the nature within himself. Whitman understood that the Over-Soul also had no preference of heterosexual versus homosexual sex as the universal consciousness is all the same and knew that, as represented by nature, sex has no boundaries. Morals limit a person, but over-riding the morals of conformity there is the self. The self is bigger. Whitman's literary contribution is so extraordinary simply because it is rooted in and about him. And there can be no greater work. In Whitman's' own words future generations will behold the mountains of truth about his transcendental state of mind.
Whitman vs. Melville – Civil War Poetry
The Civil War left its mark upon Herman Melville and Walt Whitman, who both published volumes of poetry focusing predominantly on it. Although the majority of both their poetry concerns the same subject, they differ greatly in their political and philosophical approaches to the Civil War, their conceptions of it, and their methods of conveying their ideas.
By-the-Book Melville and Rebellious Whitman
Comparatively, Melville rigidly constructs his poetry while Whitman experiments and explores free verse (a form that he virtually created). Their stylistic differences parallel the differences in their conceptions of the war and their treatment of it in their poems: Melville is skeptical of it and its ramification for American democracy, scrupulously examining the disparity between the ideal of the war and the reality of it; Whitman ardently supports the aims of the war and retains an optimistic attitude despite the brutality and loss of life that will inevitably transpire.
Moreover, the poems “The March into Virginia” by Herman Melville and “Beat! Beat! Drums!” by Walt Whitman reveal fundamental philosophical and political differences between the two poets, illustrating Melville as a conservative strict-constructivist, concerned about the direction the nation’s democracy has taken, and Whitman as an experimentalist, championing the importance of the Union at all costs.
Melville’s Poetry
Melville’s “The March into Virginia” is a poem with a rhyme scheme and a defined structure, while Whitman’s “Beat! Beat! Drums!” is loosely organized and seems to only contain figurative language and rhythmic repetition as poetic conventions. Melville employs complex, extended sentences because he intends to develop a philosophical tone with which he can muse over “the champions and enthusiasts of the state” and “turbid ardors and vain joys.” The poem also has an ironic tone, which Melville develops with his diction. He says the dying soldiers are “enlightened by the vollied glare” — a clear juxtaposition of a positively connoted word, “enlightened”, with a horrifying concept, the slaughter of war. The fate of these soldiers is death yet they march in “Bacchic glee.” Melville intends this image to catch the reader by surprise because his initial verse leads us to expect a celebration of war.
Whitman’s Poetry
Whitman’s poem is largely free of the constraints of Melville’s. Whitman's poetry is significantly more sensuous, in that he focuses intensely on the material and physical subjects of the poem instead of ideas or the ineffable. The syntax is shorter, punctuated much more frequently, which marks the poem with enthusiasm and energy— prodigiously more emotive than “The March into Virginia.” The poem is incredibly realistic, but has a jingoistic tone. Whitman emphasizes that the beat of war drums must be heard over “the traffic of cities” and “the rumble of wheels.” Rhetorical questions are utilized in the second stanza to spark thought in those who have been going about their business as usual instead of focusing on the war. The majority of the poem emphasizes the same message: the war must be put first on the North’s list of priorities.
Whitman's Fervor and Melville's Caution
Whitman’s poem is in a sense a “recruiting poem,” attempting to call Northern men to duty by appealing to their sense of civic obligation and patriotism, at some points Whitman calls for the complete abnegation of social, intellectual, and familial responsibilities, which asserts that the war and the union have taken precedence over the individual of the state. It is this idea that disconcerts Melville, who ostensibly believes that American democracy is meant to celebrate the individual instead of the state.
Unlike Whitman, Melville ironically twists images of patriotism and portrays them as foolish and the “ignorant impulse” of “youth.” Melville also questions the glorification of war: “Whence should come the trust and cheer?” Melville focuses intensely on the “fate” of the soldiers in his poem because it is, unsurprisingly, death and he does not play down this “fate,” making it an inescapable conclusion because even if some have survived the “First Manassas” they will surely perish in “the throe of Second Manassas.”
Summation of the Impetus for Whitman and Melville's Stylistic and Conceptive Differences
Stylistic and conceptive differences exist between these poems because Whitman ostensibly believed that the Civil War, if won by the North, would be a victory for democracy, leading to a better America; to Whitman, it was a necessity to preserve the union. Melville is much more circumspect, fearing that American democracy especially that of the people’s faith in the founder’s conception of America (i.e. the Constitution), was compromised by the North when they attempted to assert their political authority over the lives of people in the South. Furthermore, the North wantonly shed blood in war for a cause that was possibly not as noble or beneficent as purported. Melville’s poem “The March into Virginia” serves as a philosophical counterpoint to the ardent patriotism professed in “Beat! Beat! Drum!” by Whitman.
Whitman vs. Dickinson – Similarities
Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson's works have numerous differences. Compared to Dickinson's short and seemingly simple poems, Whitman's are long and often complex. Yet both writers share several similarities when delved into thoroughly. Though their approaches differ, they often deal with the same themes, and both pioneered their own unique style of writing.
Using death as a theme is probably the strongest connection that Whitman and Dickinson share. Whitman's view on death is reflective of his belief in Transcendentalism. In "Song of Myself", Whitman uses the scientific principle of Thermodynamics to assert that there is life after death, because energy cannot be destroyed; only transformed. In stanza six, he writes "And what do you think has become of the women and children?/ They are alive and well somewhere,/ The smallest sprouts shows there is really no death". Whitman contends that life remains long after death, and to find him now all one must do is look "under your boot-soles".
Dickinson's writings on death are more complex and paradoxical. She personifies death, generally seeing as a lord or as a compelling lover. In one of her more popular poems, "Because I could not stop for Death", death is like a kindly courter. He picks her up in a "Carriage held but just for Ourselves-/ And Immortality". Many of her other poems are about the moment of death, and what happens when the living cross over into the dead. In "I heard a Fly buzz- when I died", Dickinson tries to explain what happens at the boundary of death. She describes the experience as conflicted as she strives to define that moment with vivid images and sounds. Although Whitman and Dickinson write about death in different contexts, both seem to feel compelled to tackle the issue repeatedly. It is also apparent that neither felt intimidated about death. Whitman refers to his impending death in the final stanza of "Song of Myself". Dickinson herself wrote (to her cousins), "Little Cousins,/ Called back-/ Emily." on her deathbed.
Religion is also another subject both writers struggle with, and it often ties into the death theme. During the Romantic era, previous ideals and morals were questioned. Religion was scrutinized, and often considered outdated and irrelevant. Whitman challenged the traditional idea of religion, basing his philosophy off of transcendentalism. He collapses the distinctions between the spiritual and the secular. He often puts himself in place God. For example, in "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" he implies that he can see across time. In stanza three, he directly associates himself with Jesus Christ by writing "I am with you", an echo from the Bible. Whitman frequently uses this echo technique, not only in "Crossing", but also in "Song of Myself". Stanza 19 in "Song" is parallel to the feast of the rich man in the Bible. Once again he compares himself to Jesus, inviting "the wicked just the same as the righteous". Despite the tendency of Romantics to dismiss God completely, Whitman, perhaps due to Puritan pressure, felt the need to address the larger issues of religion and God. His assertion that spirituality is found in each of us, not in some higher being is a result of his constant questioning of traditional beliefs, combined with his inability to discard all notions of morality and values.
Emily Dickinson's philosophy on death was much more traditional, yet she too constantly questioned the Calvinistic beliefs she had grown up with. Her fixation on death is a fundamental part of her religious beliefs, and many of her poems focus on her anxiety over her Elect status. Many of her poems seem to question God's existence, and the importance of Him if He does exist. In one poem she seemingly makes fun of God, saying "That we had rather not with Him/ But with each other play". Yet many poems seem quite sure that He does indeed exist. This belief is emphasized by such lines as "I know that He exists", "I never spoke with God/ Nor visited in Heaven-/ Yet certain am I of the spot/ As if the Checks were given-". Like Whitman, Emily feels the need to challenge the role of religion, yet both ultimately are incapable of tossing old beliefs entirely.
Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson both have been hailed as original and unique artists. They each have distinctive voices that many have attempted to replicate and have been unable to do so. Whitman wrote in epic like proportions, a very unepic-like manner. He developed his own rhythmic structure, creating complex lines and stanzas. Whitman's style of free verse become synonymous with his name and works, and helped distinguish him as a great American poet. His preoccupation with sex, the human body, and numerous other "taboo" subjects, changed the American public’s view of poetry. Dickinson's works are just as unique, due mainly to her odd placement of punctuation, unusual grammar, and simplicity of language. Her lines end abruptly, outwardly innocuous words are often capitalized, and her tendency to write meters typical of hymnals all distinguishes her from other writers. Both Whitman and Dickinson write of common and everyday objects and people, while addressing the larger issues of life within that context.
While Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson's works seem to be quite different, they share common themes, namely death and religion. They both loved nature, but Whitman felt he was a part of nature while Dickinson saw herself as merely an observer. Both spoke of death as something that had more impact on those left behind than on the one who had passed. This integrated well with their shared perception of an impersonal immortality. For Whitman, this immortality was achieved in the scattering of his atoms after his death. For Dickinson, it was through the reading of her poetry after she was gone.
Emily Dickinson – General
Rejecting:
Conventional language
Poetic style
Theology
Feminine roles
Attitudes toward the world
Battles with Male figures:
God and Christ
Father Edward Dickinson /paid her for one year in college/
Brother Austin – aspiring poet
I’m ceded – I stopped being theirs
Romantic hero – she had to stop believing that the romantic hero will come and rescue her
Figure of artist/poet
Poetry:
Nothing about the situation in America, no outside world
Rejection of conventional punctuation and complete phrasing
Dashes for pacing
Synesthesia
Syntax:
Odd stylistic inversions
Omission of auxiliary verbs
Use of adjectives and verbs as nouns
Use of adverbs as nouns
Conclusion of sentences or clauses with verbs
Devices:
Hyperbaton - a figure of speech that uses deviation from normal or logical word order to produce an effect
Anastrophe - a figure of speech where the normal word order is reversed
Hysteron proteron - a figure of speech in which the natural or rational order of its terms is reversed, as in bred and born instead of born and bred
Hypellage - a figure in grammar, by which a noun or an adjective is put in a form or in a case different from that in which it ought grammatically to be
Syncrisis - a rhetorical device that emphasizes the comparison of opposites
Enallage - the poetic function where there is a sudden shift in personage by the writer
Range of play and speculations
Wit, riddling – Narrow Fellow in the Grass
Reflections on death
Vision, mystical experience
Nature and terror of nature
A demolisher of patriarchal poetic conventions
Extreme skepticism and terror of the world
Home and domesticity
Dickinson vs. Transcendentalism
Emily Dickinson is one of the most widely read and well known American poets. While she doesn't exactly fall into the category of the Transcendentalists, she was well-regarded by Emerson and she read his work thoughtfully (Pearce 174). In 1850 her friend Benjamin Newton gave her Emerson's first collection of Poems to her delight, a volume including "The Sphinx," "The Problem," "Give All to Love," "Merlin I" and "Merlin II," and "The Humblebee," all poems whose style and subject seem to resonate in her poetry. Later she expressed admiration of the writing of Thoreau; she may have been referring to him in "'Twas fighting for his Life he was--," (Fr1230), according to her biographer Alfred Habegger . Dickinson kept her writing, as well as her writerly intentions, as simple as possible. According to Roy Harvey Pearce, "she is simply and starkly concerned with being herself and accommodating her view of the world to that concern." (174) Ironically, for wishing only to be herself, Dickinson was following a transcendental ideal; she was being true to herself and being an individual at all costs, as opposed to conforming to a world of followers. Keeping Dickinson's famous reclusivity in mind, one could say that in her lifetime she was neither a leader nor a follower. Dickinson never tied herself to a specific school of thought or philosophy, she was simply herself. Perhaps that was transcendental.
Some poems of Emily Dickinson seem to be transcendental, yet not quite. She appears to search for the universal truths and investigate the circumstances of the human condition: sense of life, immortality, God, faith, place of man in the universe. Emily Dickinson questions absolutes and her argumentation is multisided. The poetic technique that she uses involves making abstract concrete, which creates a striking imagery like that of a hand of the wind combing the Sky.
One could perceive Emerson's, i.e. transcendentalism's, influence in these poems but the profound difference here is that Emily Dickinson does not take a role of a prophet, redeemer and teacher of the (American) world. Instead, hers is the lonely search for the truth; she dismisses conventional faith ("Some keep the Sabbath going to Church--") as the easiest way toward salvation. Self-analysis, self-discipline, and self-critique are the tools of her search. Her extraordinary poetic imagination acts like enzymes in chemical reactions.
Contemporaries – Transcendentalists
Transcendentalism is a group of ideas in literature and philosophy that developed in the 1830s and 1840s as a protest against the general state of culture and society, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard University and the doctrine of the Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity School. Among the transcendentalists' core beliefs was the belief in an ideal spirituality that "transcends" the physical and empirical and is realized only through the individual's intuition, rather than through the doctrines of established religions.
The major figures in the movement were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Amos Bronson Alcott.
Aesthetics is defined by Random House as "having a sense of the beautiful." This can certainly be said of such Transcendental writers as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Both writers were constantly seeking beauty, not only in terms of nature, but also in terms of the individual spirit. While aesthetics can refer to any sense of beauty, it is often used in terms of literature. How does a piece work aesthetically? How does it look or how is it shaped and/or crafted? When reading Thoreau, one often feels as if he is writing for himself. But if his only intended audience was himself, why would he have bothered shaping such works as Walden into different sections? He would have written in his own internal language that would hold little meaning for anyone other than himself. The Transcendentalists did not write only for themselves. They wrote for anyone who was and is interested in the notion of transcendence, or the notion of using reason and intellect in order to go beyond the pre-existing limits of the world. When considering aesthetics, most people think of poetry, which often attempts to portray beauty --however pleasant or terrifying-- in some way or another.
While Emerson and Thoreau are usually thought of as the fathers of American Transcendentalism, they are not the only poets who are considered in the Transcendentalist poetic canon. Although he wrote "The Poet" and a vast number of his own poems, Emerson has a strange role in the aesthetics of American Transcendentalism. Many critics consider his ideas on the role of the poet, or writer, to be revolutionary. However, those same critics are less than thrilled about Emerson's own poetry. He is said to have influenced such famous writers as Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman, both poets who are extremely well-known on their own, but who are also linked to Transcendentalism by many scholars and critics. There are also lesser known, or lesser remembered poets, such as Jones Very and Christopher Cranch, who were encouraged and influenced by Emerson. Although Thoreau did not have the impact on poetry or poets that Emerson can claim, he wrote many poems himself and had his own theories about poetry and beauty. His main contribution to aesthetics lies in his ideas of nature and the ability to transcend the rest of the world and focus supremely on nature.
Overall, the major elements of aesthetics that we can attribute to the Transcendentalists include a new definition of the role of the poet and a different perspective of nature. The transcendentalists believed that the poet was representative of everyman or everywoman, but simultaneously different, in that he or she could observe the world, nature in particular, and express its beauty through his or her own verse. They believed that function was just as important, if not more so, as form, and that art lies in the process, or the experience, and not so much in the product. In fact, the Transcendentalists usually skewed anything that was said to be definitive or all-encompassing. They believed in the circularity of ideas, in that as long as people are using their intellect, ideas are always evolving and never-ending.