Dictionary of
Abbreviations for Academic Degrees
Compiled by Andrey Yasharov
First Edition
andrey.yasharov@gmail.com
http://andreyyasharov.blogspot.com/
2
Title
Item
No.
Abbreviated
Form
Full Form
Definition
1
A.A.S.
Associate of Applied Science
An Associate Degree is an academic degree
awarded by community colleges, junior
colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting
colleges and universities upon completion of a
course of study usually lasting two years.
2
A.S.
Associate of Science
An Associate Degree is an academic degree
awarded by community colleges, junior
colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting
colleges and universities upon completion of a
course of study usually lasting two years.
Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of
Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S.
(Associate of Applied Science; or in some
cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S.
(Associate of Occupational Studies), A.B.A.
(Associate of Business Administration), and
A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies).
3
A.S.N.
Associate of Science in Nursing
An Associate of Science in Nursing is an
entry-level tertiary education nursing degree. In
the United States, this type of degree is usually
awarded by community colleges or similar
nursing schools. Students awarded an Associate
of Science in Nursing are qualified to sit for the
NCLEX-RN and apply for licensure as a
Registered Nurse.
Some hospital-based nursing schools that
granted diplomas altered their curriculum to
offer associate degrees.
Many nursing schools offering a bachelor's
degree have "fast-track" programs to enable
practicing nurses with an associate's degree to
earn a bachelor's degree in approximately two
years.
4
A.B.
Artium Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Arts)
This is usually an undergraduate academic
degree awarded for a course or major that
generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases
and countries, five or six years. It may also be
3
the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a
Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the
University of Oxford.)
5
A.M.
Artium Magister (Master of Arts)
A Master of Arts is a postgraduate academic
master's degree awarded by universities in
North America and the United Kingdom (it
may now also be awarded in other countries,
such as Switzerland). The degree is typically
studied for in Fine Art, Humanities, Social
Science or Theology and can be either fully-
taught, research-based, or a combination of the
two.
6
A.C.A.
Associate of the Institute of Chartered
Accountants
See glossary
7
A.F.A.
Amateur Football Association;
Associate of the Faculty of Actuaries
The Amateur Football Alliance is a County
Football Association in England. It is unusual
among County FAs in not being based around a
particular geographical area. It was founded in
1907, as the Amateur Football Defence
Foundation, quickly changed to Amateur
Football Association, when The FA required
all county associations to admit professional
clubs. Its aim was, as the decline of amateurism
at the highest levels of football set in, to protect
and preserve the original amateur spirit. It
prides itself on the skill and competitiveness of
its leagues, and on its traditions of fair play and
respect for opponents and match officials.
Many leagues still maintain local rules that
require clubs to provide food and drink to their
opponents and match officials after the match
in a clubhouse or public house.
See glossary
8
A.F.R.Ae.S.
Associate Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical
Society
See glossary
9
A.K.C.
Associate of King's College, London
The Associateship or Associate of King's
College award has been the degree-equivalent
qualification of King's College London since
1833. It is the original qualification that the
university awarded to its students. Since 1909,
only students registered for an University of
London degree at King's have been allowed to
4
study for the associateship. The three-year
course involves weekly lectures concerning
theology, ethics and philosophy. At the
discretion of the Dean some postgraduates, and
medical students who do not intercalate, are
allowed to compress the programme into two
years. Students take an annual examination.
After graduating from King's, students who
succeed in the AKC exams will be eligible to
be elected as Associates of King's College.
Associates use the post-nominal letters A.K.C.
after their names, along with the main
qualification.
10
A.L.B
Bachelor of Liberal Arts
The Bachelor of Liberal Arts (B.L.A.;
occasionally A.L.B.) is the title of an
undergraduate academic degree. Generally, it is
awarded to students who major in liberal arts,
pursue interdisciplinary studies, or design their
own concentrations. Often a Bachelor of
Liberal Arts degree is undertaken with the help
of a faculty advisor. A candidate designs a
unique course of study that sometimes
culminates in a thesis or capstone project. The
B.L.A. degree allows for greater curricular
flexibility than a traditional Bachelor of Arts
degree, enabling students to double major, or
pursue a broad-based liberal arts education.
11
A.M.I.C.E.
Associate Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers
See glossary
12
A.R.A.
Associate of the Royal Academy
An Associate of the Royal Academy is a
practicing artist who has been elected as a
member of the Royal Academy, an art
institution based in London, England.
13
A.R.A.M.
Associate of the Royal Academy of Music
See glossary
14
A.R.C.A.
Associate of the Royal College of Art
See glossary
15
A.R.C.M.
Associate of the Royal College of Music
See glossary
16
A.R.C.O.
Associate of the Royal College of Organists
See glossary
17
A.R.C.S.
Associate of the Royal College of Science
See glossary
18
A.R.I.B.A.
Associate of the Royal Institution of British
Architects
See glossary
19
A.R.P.S.
Associate of the Royal Photographic Society
See glossary
5
20
A.R.S.A.
Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy;
Associate of the Royal Society of Arts
See glossary
21
A.R.S.L.
Associate of the Royal Society of Literature
See glossary
22
A.R.S.M.
Associate of the Royal School of Mines
See glossary
23
A.R.S.S.
Antiquariorum Regis Societatis Socius -
Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries
See glossary
24
A.S.A.A.
Associate of Society of Incorporated
Accountants and Auditors
–
25
B.A.
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor is a person who has received what is
usually the lowest degree conferred by a four-
year college, university or professional school;
Bachelor of Arts (B.A. or A.B.), from the
Latin
Artium
Baccalaureus)
is
an
undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for
either a course or a program in the liberal arts
or the sciences, or both.
26
B.A.A.
Bachelor of Applied Arts
Bachelor of Applied Arts is a bachelor's
undergraduate degree with more specialization
in qualitative aspects of a discipline, often
requiring skill. The unfair and inaccurate
stereotype of term "Applied Arts" is that it is
vocational, not academic, which, by definition,
is not the primary mission of most major
academic institutions. A Bachelor of Applied
Arts degree is distinguished from a Bachelor of
Applied Science (B.A.S.) in that it focuses
more on qualitative aspects while the latter
focuses more on quantitative, mechanical,
physical sciences, natural sciences, and such.
While applied arts were once considered
vocational,
it
has
flourished
at
many
universities over the last 75 years as highly a
sophisticated and complex academic discipline,
spanning myriad fields. Major academic
institutions
would
likely
structure
the
curriculum of Architecture as applied arts and
that of Structural Engineering as applied
sciences; many universities would classify the
former plainly as "Architecture" and the latter
as "Engineering". Most major institutions offer
a combination of arts and sciences, partly
because
the
related
discipline
requires
6
knowledge of both.
27
B.A.A.E.
Bachelor of Aeronautical and Astronautical
Engineering
See glossary
28
B.A.Comm.
Bachelor of Arts in Communication
See glossary
29
B.Acc., B.Acy.,
B. Accty.
Bachelor of Accountancy
The degree of Bachelor of Accountancy is the
principal academic degree in accountancy. It is
not to be confused with a B.B.A. in Accounting
and B.Com. in Accounting, which are general
business administration and commerce degrees
with accounting as an area of concentration.
The Bachelor of Accountancy is a specialized
degree on its own.
30
B.A.E.
Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering,
Bachelor of Agricultural Engineering,
Bachelor of Architectural Engineering,
Bachelor of Art Education
See glossary
31
B.A.S.
Bachelor of Applied Science,
Bachelor of Art and Science;
Bachelor of Architectural Studies
See glossary
32
B.A.A.S
Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences
See glossary
33
B.A.Sc.
Bachelor of Applied Science
A Bachelor of Applied Science is an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
course of study that generally lasts three years
in the UK or four or five years in North
America.
34
B.A.U.P.
Bachelor of Arts in Urban Planning
See glossary
35
B.AgrSc
Bachelor of Agricultural Science
See glossary
36
B.Bus.
Bachelor of Business
A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year
business degree offered by many universities
around the world, particularly in Australia and
New Zealand. It is similar in format and
structure
to
a
Bachelor
of
Business
Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business
Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business
Studies (B.B.S.).
37
B.C.E.
Bachelor of Civil Engineering
See glossary
38
B.Comm.
Bachelor of Commerce
A Bachelor of Commerce, is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded for a curriculum that
generally lasts three years in Australia, India,
New Zealand, Republic of Ireland and the
United Kingdom, Malta and four years in North
7
America and South Africa. The degree has ties
to British colonies and is not common in the
United States. A Bachelor of Commerce may
cover the same coursework as a Bachelor of
Business Administration (B.B.A.), except that
it often places more emphasis on theory and
business principles. A Bachelor of Commerce
can also be known as a Bachelor of Commerce
and Administration (B.C.A.). Depending on the
institution, a formal academic major may or
may not be established.
39
B.App.Sc.
Bachelor of Applied Science
A Bachelor of Applied Science is an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
course of study that generally lasts three years
in the UK or four or five years in North
America.
40
B.As.
Bachelor of Asian Studies
See glossary
41
B.A.Econ.
Bachelor of Economics
See glossary
42
B.A.Ed.
Bachelor of Arts in Education
A Bachelor of Education is an undergraduate
academic degree which qualifies the graduate
as a teacher in schools.
43
B.A.J. or A.B.J.
Bachelor of Arts in Journalism
See glossary
44
B.Arch.
Bachelor of Architecture
The
Bachelor
of
Architecture
is
an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
course of study that generally lasts five years in
North America.
45
B.B.A.
Bachelor of Business Administration
Bachelor of Business Administration is a
bachelor's degree in Business Administration.
In most universities, a Bachelor of Business
Administration degree is conferred upon a
student after four years of full-time study (120
credit hours) in one or more areas of business.
46
B.B.E.
Bachelor of Build Environment
See glossary
47
B.B.NSc.
Bachelor of Behavioural Neuroscience
See glossary
48
B.Bus
Bachelor of Business
A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year
business degree offered by many universities
around the world, particularly in Australia and
New Zealand. It is similar in format and
structure
to
a
Bachelor
of
Business
Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business
Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business
8
Studies (B.B.S.).
49
B.C.A.
Bachelor of Commerce and Administration
A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
curriculum that generally lasts three years in
Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of
Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and
four years in North America and South Africa.
The degree has ties to British colonies and is
not common in the United States. A Bachelor
of Commerce may cover the same coursework
as a Bachelor of Business Administration
(B.B.A.), except that it often places more
emphasis on theory and business principles. A
Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a
Bachelor of Commerce and Administration
(B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a
formal academic major may or may not be
established.
50
B.C.A.
Bachelor of Creative Arts
See glossary
51
B.Ch.
Bachelor of Chemistry; Baccalaureus
Chirurgiæ - Bachelor of Surgery
See glossary
52
B.Ch.E.
Bachelor of Chemical Engineering
See glossary
53
B.C.L.
Bachelor of Canon Law, Bachelor of Civil
Law
Bachelor of Civil Law is the name of various
degrees in law conferred by English-language
universities. Historically, it originated as a
postgraduate degree in the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, but many universities
now offer the B.C.L. as an undergraduate
degree. The reference to civil law was not
originally in contradistinction to common law,
but to canon law, although it is true that
common law was not taught in the civil law
faculties in either university until at least the
second half of the 18th century. However, some
universities in English-speaking countries use
the degree in the former sense.
See glossary
54
B.Comm. or
B.Com.
Bachelor of Commerce
A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
curriculum that generally lasts three years in
Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of
Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and
9
four years in North America and South Africa.
The degree has ties to British colonies and is
not common in the United States. A Bachelor
of Commerce may cover the same coursework
as a Bachelor of Business Administration
(B.B.A.), except that it often places more
emphasis on theory and business principles. A
Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a
Bachelor of Commerce and Administration
(B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a
formal academic major may or may not be
established.
55
B.Comp.
Bachelor of Computing
Bachelor of Computing is a bachelor's degree
in computing. This degree is offered only in
some universities, and is slightly, but
significantly, different from a B.Sc. in
Computer Science or a B.CS.
56
B.C.P.
Bachelor of City Planning
See glossary
57
B.C.S. or
B.CompSc.
Bachelor of Computer Science
Bachelor of Computer Science is a type of
bachelor's degree, usually awarded after four
years of collegiate study in computer science.
The same core curriculum may, depending on
the school, result in other degrees, including:
Bachelor of Arts in Computer Science;
Bachelor of Mathematics in Computer
Science; Bachelor of Science in Computer
Science;
Bachelor
of
Engineering
in
Computer Science.
58
B.C.M.
Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical
Sciences
Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical
Sciences is an undergraduate academic degree
awarded to a student after three years of
studying
computer
science,
information
technology and/or mathematics at an accredited
university in Australia (other countries may
offer this degree, this is unknown at the time of
writing). A Bachelor of Computer and
Mathematical Sciences is a flexible academic
degree allowing a double major combining
majors within the fields of Computer Science,
Mathematics and Information Technology, as
well as other approved subject areas within the
university. Third year units in Computer
10
Science particularly, offer a wide range of
future study interests, including Robotics,
Finance and Programming.
59
B.D., B.Div.
Bachelor of Divinity
In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of
Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic
degree awarded for a courses taken in the study
of divinity or related disciplines, such as
theology or, rarely, religious studies.
60
B.Des.
Bachelor of Design (Visual design discipline)
A Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) degree is
usually an undergraduate academic degree
awarded for a course or major that generally
lasts three or four years.
61
B.E.
Bachelor of Education,
Bachelor of Engineering
A Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) is an
undergraduate academic degree which qualifies
the graduate as a teacher in schools.
Bachelor of Engineering (B.A.I. (in latin),
B.Eng., or B.E.) is an undergraduate academic
degree awarded to a student after three, four or
five years of studying engineering at an
accredited university in the United States,
United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, Nigeria, China and India. A
Bachelor of Engineering is a Professional
Degree and therefore a requirement for
undertaking some engineering work. This is
controlled
by
the
national
professional
engineering society or institute who accredit the
universities and is also often controlled by law.
62
B.Ec.
Bachelor of Economics
See glossary
63
B.Ed.
Bachelor of Education
See glossary
64
B.Eng. or B.E.,
BAI (in Latin)
Bachelor of Engineering, Baccalaureus in Arte
Ingeniaria
Bachelor of Engineering is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded to a student after
three, four or five years of studying engineering
at an accredited university in the United States,
United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, Nigeria and India. A Bachelor of
Engineering is a Professional Degree and
therefore a requirement for undertaking some
engineering work. This is controlled by the
national professional engineering society or
institute who accredit the universities and is
also often controlled by law.
11
65
B.Eng.BioSci.
Bachelor of Engineering and Biosciences
See glossary
66
B.Eng.C.S.
Bachelor of Engineering and Computer
Systems
See glossary
67
B.Eng.Mgt.
Bachelor of Engineering and Management
See glossary
68
B.Eng.Society
Bachelor of Engineering and Society
See glossary
69
B.E.S.
Bachelor of Environmental Studies
A Bachelor of Environmental Studies is an
undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for
courses taken in the study of environmental
studies or related disciplines,
such as
geography, urban planning, environmental
resource studies, or architecture. In practice,
this is essentially equivalent to a Bachelor of
Arts degree with a specialty in environmental
studies. Relatively few institutions award
Bachelor of Environmental Studies degrees,
and the distinction between institutions which
do award such degrees and those which award
B.A. degrees for geography, for example, is
usually one of university bureaucracy, rather
than curriculum.
70
B.F.A.
Bachelor of Fine Arts
The Bachelor of Fine Arts, is the standard
undergraduate degree for students seeking a
professional education in the visual or
performing arts. The degree differs from a
Bachelor of Arts degree in that the majority of
the program consists of a practical studio
component, as contrasted with lecture and
discussion classes. A typical B.F.A. program
consists of two-thirds study in the arts, with
one-third in more general liberal arts studies;
for a B.A. in Art, the ratio might be reversed. A
B.F.A. degree will often require an area of
specialty such as: acting, musical theatre,
ceramics, creative writing, dance, drawing,
fiber,
film
production,
graphic
design,
illustration, industrial design, interior design,
metalworking,
new
media,
painting,
photography, printmaking, or sculpture. Some
schools instead give their students a broad
education in many disciplines of the arts.
71
B.G.S.
Bachelor of General Studies
A Bachelor of General Studies degree is an
undergraduate
degree,
offered
by
some
12
universities in the Western world. It is very
similar to a Bachelor of Arts degree, although
there are often fewer requirements for studies
in humanities and social sciences. In many
cases, the Bachelor of General Studies or B.S.
in General Studies (as offered by Drexel
University via the Goodwin College of
Professional Studies) is offered as a degree
program specifically for adult learners that have
delayed or interrupted their studies, and
typically offers matriculants the ability to
design their own curriculum.
72
B.Hk. or B.H.Kin.
Bachelor of Human Kinetics
A Bachelor of Human Kinetics is a four-year
academic degree awarded by a university upon
the completion of a program of study of Human
Kinetics. Specializations within this degree can
include:
Athletic
Therapy,
Kinesiology,
Physical Education, Recreation, and Sport
management.
73
B.H.Sc
Bachelor of Health Sciences
See glossary
74
B.Hy.
Bachelor of Hygiene
See glossary
75
B.I.E.
Bachelor of Industrial Engineering
See glossary
76
B.InfTech.
Bachelor of Information Technology
See glossary
77
B.InfSci.
Bachelor of Information Science
See glossary
78
B.IntSt.
Bachelor of International Studies
See glossary
79
B.J.
Bachelor of Journalism (see the University of
Missouri Columbia)
See glossary
80
B.L.
Bachelor of Law; Bachelor of Letters
The degree of Bachelor of Laws (or
Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal
academic degree in law in most common law
countries other than the United States, where it
has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree. It
is abbreviated LL.B (or LLB, or sometimes
LL.b): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive
plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for
Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United
States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal
Letters" to account for the double "L". In
Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the
first degree in common law, but is also the
name of the first degree in Quebec civil law
13
awarded by a number of Quebec universities.
The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally
a graduate-entry degree.
81
B.Lang.
Bachelor of Languages
See glossary
82
B.L.A.
Bachelor of Landscape Architecture
See glossary
83
B.Lit.
Bachelor of Literature
-
84
B.M.
Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Medicine
A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded by a college,
university, or conservatory upon completion of
program of study in music. In the United States,
the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree;
the majority of work consists of prescribed
music courses and study in applied music,
usually requiring a proficiency performing an
instrument. Such a program lasts three to four
and a half years.
85
B.M.A.Sc.
Bachelor of Military Arts and Sciences
(used at Royal Military College of Canada)
-
86
B.Math.
Bachelor of Mathematics
A
Bachelor
of
Mathematics
is
an
undergraduate academic degree awarded for
courses taken in the study of mathematics or
related disciplines, such as computer science or
statistics.
87
B.Mgmt.
Bachelor of Management
See glossary
88
B.M.S.
Bachelor of Maritime Studies
See glossary
89
B.Mus., Mus.B,
B.M.
Bachelor of Music
A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded by a college,
university, or conservatory upon completion of
program of study in music. In the United States,
the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree;
the majority of work consists of prescribed
music courses and study in applied music. Such
a program lasts three to four and a half years. A
Bachelor of Music may be awarded for Music
Performance, Music Education, Composition,
Music Theory, Musicology/Music History,
Music Technology, Music Business, Music
Entertainment, Music Production or Jazz
Studies.
90
B.M.Ed. or
B.M.E.
Bachelor of Music Education
See glossary
14
91
B.M.S.
Bachelor of Marine Science
See glossary
92
B.N.
Bachelor of Nursing
The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (B.S.N.,
B.Sc.N.) or Bachelor of Nursing (B.N.) is a
four year academic degree in the science and
principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary
education university or similarly accredited
school. This level of education has become the
standard that many countries in the world
require as an entry-level degree for a licensure
as a registered nurse.
93
B.Pharm.
Bachelor of Pharmacy
A Bachelor of Pharmacy is an undergraduate
academic degree in the field of pharmacy. The
degree is a basic prerequisite, in many
countries, for registration to practice as a
pharmacist. In some countries it has been
superseded by the Master of Pharmacy
(M.Pharm.)
and
Doctor
of
Pharmacy
(Pharm.D.) degrees.
94
B.S., B.Sc. or S.B.
or Sc.B.
Bachelor of Science, Scientiae Baccalaureus
In North America, a Bachelor of Science
degree may be a more specialized version of
B.A., with more focus on the subject and less
on a broad liberal arts background; for
example, a B.S. in economics may require
several more advanced economics courses than
a B.A. in economics, and possibly more support
courses (such as statistics). The B.S. is also
frequently used for professional areas of study
such
as
engineering,
journalism,
and
advertising. In the UK, which subjects are
considered
science
subjects
varies,
e.g.
economics degrees may be B.A. in one
university but B.Sc. in another. In addition,
some universities, like the London School of
Economics, offer the B.Sc. in practically all
subject areas even when they are normally
associated with arts degrees, while others
award arts qualifications almost exclusively,
namely the Oxbridge universities. In both
instances, this is generally for historical and
traditional reasons. A Bachelor of Science
receives the designation B.Sc. or B.S. for a
major/pass degree and B.Sc. (Hons) or B.S.
15
(Hon) for an honours degree.
95
B.S.A.E.
Bachelor of Science in Aerospace
Engineering; Bachelor of Science in
Agricultural Engineering
See glossary
96
B.S.A.
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
See glossary
97
B.S.B.A.
Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration
See bachelor's degree
98
B.S.B.E.
Bachelor of Science in Biological Engineering
See glossary
99
B.S.C.B.A.
Bachelor of Science in Commerce and
Business Administration
See glossary
100
B.S.C.E. or B.C.E.
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
See glossary
101
B.S.Ch.E. or
B.Ch.E.
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
See glossary
102
B.Sc.
Bachelor of Science
A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less
commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin
Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded for completed
courses that generally last three years in
Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England,
Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of
Ireland, Israel, The Netherlands, New Zealand,
Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec, Malaysia,
Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, Wales and
South Africa; or four years in North America,
Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines,
Scotland and Brazil. In North America, a
Bachelor of Science degree may be a more
specialized version of B.A., with more focus on
the subject and less on a broad liberal arts
background; for example, a B.S. in economics
may require several more advanced economics
courses than a B.A. in economics, and possibly
more support courses (such as statistics). The
B.S. is also frequently used for professional
areas of study such as engineering, journalism,
and advertising.
103
B.S.Chem.
Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
See glossary
104
B.S.C.S.
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
See glossary
105
B.S.E.
Bachelor of Science in Engineering
See glossary
106
B.S.E.E.
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
See glossary
107
B.S.Ed.
Bachelor of Science in Education
See glossary
16
108
B.S.E.H.
Bachelor of Science in Environmental Health
See glossary
109
B.S.F.C.S.
Bachelor of Science in Family and Consumer
Sciences
See glossary
110
B.S.F.R.
Bachelor of Science in Forest Resources
See glossary
111
B.S.Geo.
Bachelor of Science in Geology
See glossary
112
B.S.H.E.S.,
B.S.Hu.Env.Sci.
Bachelor of Science in Human Environmental
Sciences
See glossary
113
B.S.I.E.
Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering
See glossary
114
B.S.M.E.
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical
Engineering
See glossary
115
B.S.Med.Tech.,
B.S.Med.T.
Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology
See glossary
116
B.S.Met.,
B.S.Mt.E.
Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical
Engineering
See glossary
117
B.S.Micro.,
B.S.Micr.
Bachelor of Science in Microbiology
See glossary
118
B.S.Mng.E.,
B.S.Min.E. (Min.)
Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering,
Mining
See glossary
119
B.S.N., B.Sc.N.
Bachelor of Science in Nursing
The Bachelor of Science in Nursing or is a
four year academic degree in the science and
principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary
education university or similarly accredited
school. This level of education has become the
standard that many countries in the world
require as an entry-level degree for a licensure
as a registered nurse.
120
B.S.O.T.
Bachelor of Science in Occupational Therapy
See glossary
121
B.S.P.A.
Bachelor of Science in Physics and
Astronomy
See glossary
122
B.S.Pcs.
Bachelor of Science in Physics
See glossary
123
B.S.Pet.E.,
B.S.Min.E.(Pet.)
Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering,
Petroleum
See glossary
124
B.S.Phr.,
B.S.Phar.
Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy
An undergraduate academic degree in the field
of pharmacy. The degree is a basic prerequisite,
in many countries, for registration to practise as
a pharmacist. In some countries it has been
17
superseded by the Master of Pharmacy
(M.Pharm.)
and
Doctor
of
Pharmacy
(Pharm.D.) degrees.
125
B.S.U.P.
Bachelor of Science in Urban Planning
See glossary
126
B.S.W.
Bachelor of Social Work
See glossary
127
B. Tech.
Bachelor of Technology
See glossary
128
B.U.P.
Bachelor of Urban Planning
See glossary
129
C.A.
Chartered Accountant; Chief Accountant
Chartered Accountant is the title of members
of
a
certain
professional
accountancy
associations in the Commonwealth countries
and Ireland. The term chartered refers to the
charter under which these bodies were
incorporated.
Subjects
examined
include
financial accounting, management accounting,
auditing, taxation and company law.
130
D.B.
Divinitatis Baccalaureus
(Bachelor of Divinity)
In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of
Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic
degree awarded for a courses taken in the study
of divinity or related disciplines, such as
theology or, rarely, religious studies.
131
D.B.A.
Doctor of Business Administration
The
degree
of
Doctor
of
Business
Administration
is
a
research-oriented
doctorate. The D.B.A. (like the Ph.D.) often
requires significant coursework beyond the
masters level. However, depending on the
scholastic program and the level of preparation
at the bachelors and masters level, coursework
is not always mandatory. The D.B.A. (like the
Ph.D.) normally requires a significant thesis or
final comprehensive project including a formal
defense and approval by an officially
sanctioned and qualified doctoral review
committee. The degree is conferred when all
coursework, testing, and written research is
completed satisfactorily and when it is
reviewed and approved by the committee.
132
D.C.
Doctor of Chiropractic
See glossary
133
D.C.H.
Diploma in Child Health
See glossary
134
D.C.L.
Doctor of Civil Law
Some universities, such as the University of
Oxford, award Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)
degrees instead of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)
18
degrees. At Oxford, the degree of Doctor of
Civil Law by Diploma is customarily conferred
on foreign Heads of State, as well as on the
Chancellor of the University. (The British
Sovereign is unable to receive university
degrees, since these would, theoretically, place
her under the jurisdiction of the Chancellor of
the university. Prior to her accession, the
present Queen did accept several honorary
degrees, including an Oxford DCL in 1948).
135
D.C.M.
Doctor of Chiropractic Medicine
See glossary
136
D.C.M.
Doctor of Church Music
See glossary
137
D.D.
Divinitatis Doctor (Doctor of Divinity)
Doctor of Divinity is an academic degree in
divinity. Historically, it identified one who had
been licensed by a university to teach Christian
theology or related religious subjects.
138
D.D.S.
Doctor of Dental Surgery
The Doctor of Dental Surgery denotes one of
two common professional doctorates in the
United States for dentists, the other being
Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.). In the
past, the difference consisted of having a
D.M.D. train for a brief period with general
medical students.
139
D.H.L.
Doctor of Humane Letters
A Doctor of Humane Letters (Latin:
Litterarum humanae doctor; D.H.L.; or L.H.D.)
is an honorary degree often conferred to those
who have contributed to issues of peace and
social justice.
140
D.Lit. or Litt.
Doctor of Literature; Doctor of Letters
A Doctor of Letters is a university academic
degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a
higher doctorate, above the Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a
committee on the basis of a long record of
research and publication.
141
D.M.A.
Doctor of Musical Arts
The Doctor of Musical Arts degree (D.M.A.,
or A.Mus.D.), like other doctorates, is a
terminal academic degree. The D.M.A. is
intended for musicians who wish to combine
the highest attainments in their area of
specialization with doctoral-level academic
study in music. D.M.A. students typically
19
complete applied studies culminating in several
solo recitals, take courses within their area of
specialization (as well as related courses in
music theory and music history), and write a
thesis
or
dissertation.
Some
programs
additionally require study in a cognate area
within music or in an outside field.
142
D.M.D.
Doctor of Dental Medicine
See glossary
143
D.Min.
Doctor of Ministry
See glossary
144
D.Miss.
Doctor of Missiology
See glossary
145
D.M.S.
Doctor of Medical Science
See glossary
146
D.N.S.
Doctor of Nursing Science
A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an
advanced-level quaternary education degree for
Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a
prerequisite
for
doctorate-level
nursing
education. This type of degree is preferred for
nurse educators and nurses in leadership
positions.
147
D.O.
Doctor of Osteopathy
See glossary
148
D.P.A.
Doctor of Public Administration
See glossary
149
D.P.H.
Doctor of Public Health
See glossary
150
D.P.M.
Doctor of Podiatric Medicine
See glossary
151
Dr.
Doctor
Doctor is person holding one of the highest
titles given by a university;
-person whose profession is to attend sick
people.
152
D.S.
Doctor of Surgery
See glossary
153
D.Sc., Hon.D.Sc.
Doctor of Science (usually honorary)
D.Sc., Sc.D., S.D., or Dr.Sc. are common
abbreviations for the Latin Scientiae Doctor,
meaning Doctor of Science.
Doctor is person holding one of the highest
titles given by a university.
The degree is conferred on a member of the
university who has a proven record of
internationally
recognised
scholarship.
A
candidate for the degree will usually be
required to submit a selection of their
publications to the board of the appropriate
faculty, which will decide if the candidate
merits this accolade. The degree will only
exceptionally be awarded to a scholar under the
20
age of forty.
154
D.S.N.
Doctor of Science in Nursing
A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an
advanced-level quaternary education degree for
Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a
prerequisite
for
doctorate-level
nursing
education. This type of degree is preferred for
nurse educators and nurses in leadership
positions.
155
D.S.W.
Doctor of Social Welfare,
Doctor of Social Work
The Doctor of Social Work is an academic
degree
for
experienced
social
work
practitioners who wish to further their careers
by gaining training in advanced practice,
research and/or policy analysis. Much of the
course work emphasizes qualitiative and
quantitative analysis methods. The degree
typically leads to teaching, research, leadership
roles in agencies, or self-employed social work
practice. The DSW has become less popular in
the past several decades, as most of the top
ranked Schools of Social Work now offer only
Ph.D. research programs in social work.
See glossary
156
D.V.M.
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
A Veterinary Surgeon is a veterinarian
qualified in the UK and some other English-
speaking countries (See: Commonwealth of
Nations and Commonwealth realms). In the
UK, veterinary surgeons are regulated by the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons or
RCVS. The legislation affecting the activity of
UK veterinary surgeons and of the RCVS is the
Veterinary Surgeons Act of 1966.
157
Ed.D.
Doctor of Education
The Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D. or
D.Ed.) is a professional doctorate which
prepares the student for administrative or
specialized positions in education. Like other
doctorates, (e.g. the Ph.D., D.A., and so on), the
Ed.D./D.Ed. is an academic degree of the
highest level. In the United States, the Ed.D.
tends to be granted by the Schools of Education
of Universities; hence, it is designated a Doctor
of Education degree.
158
Ed.S.
Educational Specialist
The Education Specialist, also referred to as
21
Educational Specialist, Specialist in Education,
or Ed.S., is a terminal academic degree in the
U.S. that is designed for individuals who wish
to develop additional skills or increase their
knowledge beyond the master's degree level,
but do not wish to pursue a degree at the
doctoral level. Depending on the type of
program offering the degree, a Master's degree
may or may not be a prerequisite for entry. In
school psychology programs, for instance, the
Specialist degree is often designed to follow
immediately after a bachelor's degree.
159
F.A.I.
Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries
A fellow in the broadest sense is someone who
is an equal or a comrade. The term is most
often used in an academic context: a fellow is
(at least in theory) part of an elite group of
learned people who work together as peers in
the pursuit of knowledge. However, there are
no precise rules for how the title is used, and
each academic institution grants the title as it
sees fit.
See glossary
160
F.B.S.
Fellow of the Botanical Society
–
161
F.C.A.
Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants
Professional qualifications in the United
Kingdom
are
generally
awarded
by
professional bodies in line with their charters.
These qualifications are subject to the European
directives on professional qualifications. Most,
but not all, professional qualifications are
'Chartered' qualifications, and follow on from
having
done
a
degree
(or
equivalent
qualification).
See glossary
162
F.C.I.S.
Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Secretaries
The organization was founded in 1891 and
incorporated by Royal Charter in 1902. The
initial object of the Institute of Secretaries was
the development of the profession of company
secretary and the creation of high standards in
the Profession. Membership was limited to
those successful in the examinations and those
who demonstrated the standard of experience
set by the Institute.
22
163
F.C.P.
Fellow of the College of Preceptors
The College of Teachers (formerly known as
the College of Preceptors) is a large
association of teachers and associated para-
professionals in the United Kingdom. The
College of Teachers was incorporated by Royal
Charter in 1849 as The College of Preceptors.
Subsequently, in 1998 it changed its name to
the College of Teachers.
164
F.C.S.
Fellow of the Chemical Society
The Chemical Society was formed in 1841
(then named the Chemical Society of London)
as a result of increased interest in scientific
matters. One of its aims was to hold meetings
for "the communication and discussion of
discoveries and observations, an account of
which shall be published by the Society". In
1847, its importance was recognised by a Royal
Charter, which added to its role in the
advancement of science, the development of
chemical applications in industry. Its members
included eminent chemists from overseas
including August Wilhelm von Hofmann, who
became its president in 1861. Membership was
open to all those interested in chemistry.
Its activities expanded over the years, including
eventually becoming a major publisher in the
field of chemistry. In 1980, it amalgamated
with the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the
Faraday Society and the Society for Analytical
Chemistry to become the Royal Society of
Chemistry.
165
F.F.P.S.
Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and
Surgeons
See glossary
166
F.G.S.
Fellow of the Geological Society
See glossary
167
F.I.A.
Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries
See glossary
168
F.I.Biol.
Fellow of the Institute of Biology
The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional
body for biologists, primarily those working in
the United Kingdom. Membership currently
stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950,
received a Royal Charter in 1979 and holds
charitable status. The headquarters of the
Institue is located in Kensington, London, near
to the Natural History Museum and Imperial
23
College London. The IoB is not a trade union,
nor does it have regulatory power over its
membership, like the General Medical Council.
169
F.I.C.
Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry
–
170
F.R.A.M.
Fellow of the Royal Academy of Music
The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes
abbreviated to RAM) is a music school in
London, England and one of the leading music
institutions in the world. It was founded by
Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was
granted a Royal Charter by King George IV 'to
promote the cultivation of the science of music
and to afford facilities for attaining perfection
in it by assisting with general instruction all
persons desirous of acquiring knowledge
thereof'. One of the most revered musical
education establishments in the world, many
important musicians have studied at the
Academy since then.
171
F.R.A.S.
Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society;
Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society
The Royal Astronomical Society began as the
Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to
support astronomical research (mainly carried
on at the time by 'gentleman astronomers' rather
than professionals). It became the Royal
Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving its
Royal
Charter
from
William
IV.
A
Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the
fellowship to women. It is the UK adhering
organisation to the International Astronomical
Union and a member of the Science Council.
The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain
and Ireland was, according to its Royal
Charter of August 11, 1824, established to
further "the investigation of subjects connected
with and for the encouragement of science
literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From
its incorporation the Society has been a forum,
through lectures, its journal, and other
publications, for scholarship relating to Asian
culture and society of the highest level. It is the
United Kingdom's senior learned society in the
field of Asian studies.
172
F.R.C.I.
Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute
–
24
173
F.R.C.O.
Fellow of the Royal College of Organists
The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an
educational body of the United Kingdom. Its
role is to promote organ and choral music and it
offers musical education and training for
organists and choral directors. The College
maintains the British Organ Library and
provides examinations in organ-playing, choral
directing and organ-teaching. These exams are
legendary for their exhausting standards and
tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by
many distinguished organists for their 19th-
century austerity and elitist approach.
174
F.R.C.P.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians
The Royal College of Physicians of London is
the oldest medical institution in England was
founded in 1518 and is one of the most active
of all medical professional organisations. Since
the College's creation as the College of
Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in
1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in
1518, it has engaged in a wide range of
activities dedicated to its overall aim of
upholding and improving standards of medical
practice.
Its
membership
(and
the
M.R.C.P.(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who
have completed the Membership of the Royal
College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the
FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the
Royal College of Physicians (L.R.C.P.) is no
longer awarded.
175
F.R.C.S.
Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons
The Royal College of Surgeons of England is
an independent professional body committed to
promoting and advancing the highest standards
of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery,
including dentistry, in England and Wales. The
College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in
London.
176
F.R.C.V.S
Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons
The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is
the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in
the United Kingdom. Established in 1844 by
Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out
in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act.
177
F.R.G.S.
Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
The Royal Geographical Society is a learned
25
society, founded in 1830 with the name
Geographical Society of London for the
advancement of geographical science, under the
patronage of King William IV. It absorbed the
'Association for Promoting the Discovery of the
Interior Parts of Africa' (founded by Sir Joseph
Banks in 1788), the Raleigh Club and the
Palestine Association. It was given a Royal
charter by Queen Victoria in 1859.
176
F.R.Hist.S.
Fellow of the Royal Historical Society
The Royal Historical Society was founded in
1868. It is the premier society in the United
Kingdom which promotes and defends the
scholarly study of the past. The Society has a
varied programme of lectures and one-day and
two-day Conferences covering a wide range of
historical issues. Some of its meetings are held
in London; others at university venues
throughout Great Britain. They provide
excellent opportunities for formal and informal
discussion among historians.
177
F.R.H.S.
Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society
The Royal Horticultural Society was founded
in
1804
in
London,
England
as
the
Horticultural Society of London, and gained
its present name in a Royal Charter granted in
1861 by Prince Albert. It is a charity and exists
to promote gardening and horticulture in
Britain and Europe. This is done through a
series of flower shows and through many
model gardens that are open to the public. The
society celebrated its bicentenary in 2004.
178
F.R.I.B.A.
Fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects
The Royal Institute of British Architects
(RIBA) is a professional body for architects in
the United Kingdom. Originally named the
Institute of British Architects in London, it was
formed in 1834 by several prominent architects,
including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom,
William
Donthorne,
Thomas
Leverton
Donaldson and John Buonarotti Papworth. It
was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837,
becoming the Royal Institute of British
Architects in London, eventually dropping the
reference to London in 1892. The Institute also
26
maintains a dozen regional offices around the
United Kingdom. Parts of the London building
are open to the public. It has a large
architectural bookshop, a café, galleries for
exhibitions, and lecture theatres. Rooms are
hired out for events.
179
F.R.Met.S.
Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society
The Royal Meteorological Society traces its
origins back to April 3, 1850 when the British
Meteorological Society was formed as a society
the objects of which should be the advancement
and extension of meteorological science by
determining the laws of climate and of
meteorological phenomena in general. It
became The Meteorological Society in 1866,
when it was incorporated by Royal Charter, and
the Royal Meteorological Society in 1883,
when Her Majesty Queen Victoria granted the
privilege of adding 'Royal' to the title. As of
2006 it has more than 3,000 members
worldwide.
180
F.R.M.S.
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society
–
181
F.R.P.S.
Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society
The Royal Photographic Society was founded
in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the
Art and Science of Photography". It maintains
an extensive photographic archive and offers
various levels of qualifications in photographic
skills.
182
F.R.S.
Fellow of the Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for the
Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known
simply as The Royal Society, was founded in
1660 and claims to be the oldest learned society
still in existence. Although a voluntary body, it
serves as the academy of sciences of the United
Kingdom (in which role it receives £30 million
annually from the UK Government), and is a
learned society for science. It is a member
organization of the Science Council.
183
F.R.S.E.
Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh
The Royal Society of Edinburgh (founded
1783) is a separate Scottish body. The Royal
Irish Academy (founded 1785) is a separate
Irish body.
184
F.R.S.L.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature
The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior
27
literary organisation in Britain." It was founded
in 1820 by George IV, with the aim to "reward
literary merit and excite literary talent." The
Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and
administers a number of literary prizes and
awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the
Jerwood Awards and the V. S. Pritchett
Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of
Companion of Literature for writers of
particular note. It also awards the Benson
Medal for lifetime service in the field of
literature.
185
F.R.S.S.A.
Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts
The Royal Scottish Society of Arts is a
learned society in Scotland, dedicated to the
study of science and technology. It was
founded
as
The
Society
for
the
Encouragement of the Useful Arts in
Scotland by Sir David Brewster in 1821 and
dedicated to "the promotion of invention and
enterprise". The Society was granted a Royal
Charter in 1841. For many years the promotion
of invention and improvements of all sorts was
the main business of the Society, and its
meetings were the focus of a large and active
cross-section of Edinburgh society - academics,
gentry, professionals such as civil engineers
and lawyers, and skilled craftsmen such as
instrument makers, engravers and printers. The
Society's published Transactions provide a
fascinating record of changes in technology,
and the Society's extensive archive (publicly
accessible in the National Library of Scotland)
is a valuable resource used by researchers.
186
F.S.A.
Fellow of the Society of Arts;
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
The Royal Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is a
British multi-disciplinary institution, based in
London. The name Royal Society of Arts is
frequently used by others for brevity, but the
Society itself uses either its full name or the
initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of
the Society use after their name – FRSA). It was
founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal
28
Charter in 1847. Notable members have
included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam
Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and
Guglielmo Marconi.
The Society of Antiquaries of London is a
learned society, based in the United Kingdom,
concerned
with
"the
encouragement,
advancement and furtherance of the study and
knowledge of the antiquities and history of this
and other countries". An antiquary was a
person interested in the study of the past,
particularly the physical traces of the past. The
term was current from the late 16th century to
the 19th century. Antiquarianism then evolved
into more specialised fields of interest such as
archaeology, architectural history, art history,
conservation, heraldry, anthropology, and
ecclesiastical studies, and there is no such thing
as a professional antiquary today. The
continuing use of the word in the Society's
name is an anachronism, but reflects both the
antiquity of the Society and its continuing
broad range of interests.
187
F.S.A.A.
Fellow of the Society of Incorporated
Accountants and Auditors
The Association of Chartered Certified
Accountants is a British chartered accountancy
body with a global presence that offers the
Chartered Certified Accountant (Designatory
letters
ACCA
or
FCCA)
qualification
worldwide. It is one of the world's largest and
fastest-growing
accountancy
bodies
with
110,000 members and 260,000 affiliates and
students in 170 countries. The Institute's
headquarters are in London with the principal
administrative office being based in Glasgow.
In addition the ACCA has a network of over 70
staffed offices and other centres around the
world.
188
F.S.S.
Fellow of the Statistical Society
The Royal Statistical Society is a learned
society for statistics and a professional body for
statisticians in the UK. It was founded in 1834
as the Statistical Society of London, in the
same week that the Tolpuddle Martyrs were
29
sentenced (see History of Teaching Statistics).
It became the Royal Statistical Society in 1887,
and merged with the Institute of Statisticians in
1993. Today the society has 7,200 members in
the UK and the rest of the world, only around
1,500 of whom are professionally qualified.
The RSS team reached the finals of University
Challenge: The Professionals 2006. They were
beaten 230 to 125 by the Bodleian Library,
Oxford. They had previously beaten the Granta
team in the first round (first broadcast on 24
July) before going on to beat the team from
Prospect Magazine 280 points to 115 in the
semi-final, broadcast on 31 July.
189
F.Z.S.
Fellow of the Zoological Society
The Zoological Society of London is a learned
society founded in April 1826 by Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles, Lord Auckland, Sir Humphry
Davy, Joseph Sabine, Nicholas Aylward Vigors
and other eminent naturalists. Raffles was also
the first President, but died shortly after
assuming this office in July 1826. He was
succeeded by the Marquess of Lansdowne, who
obtained a parcel of land in Regent's Park from
the Crown at a nominal rent, and who
supervised the building of the first animal
houses. It received a Royal Charter from
George IV on 27 March 1829. The purpose of
the society was to study animals in comparative
freedom. In April 1828 the Zoological Gardens
were opened to members. In 1831 William IV
presented the royal menagerie to the Zoological
Society, and in 1847 the public were admitted
to aid funding, and Londoners soon christened
the Zoological Gardens the "Zoo". The Zoo
soon had the most extensive collection of
animals in the world.
190
G.P.
General Practitioner
A general practitioner, family physician or
family practitioner is a physician/medical
doctor who provides primary care. A G.P./F.P.
treats acute and chronic illnesses, provides
preventive care and health education for all
ages and both sexes. Some also care for
30
hospitalized patients, do minor surgery and/or
obstetrics, where they have hospital privileges.
However, in the past, they were required to do
much more important surgeries, such as
tonsillectomies,
hernia
repairs,
and
appendectomies. For instance, it was common
for a General Practitioner to operate if a patient
had an extremely painful hernia, or an acute
appendus. From time to time, however, they
will remove minor skin lesions surgically.
There has been an steady decrease in family
physicians in the last few decades, due to the
long work hours and little pay compared to
most specialists. The term general practitioner
is common in the United Kingdom and some
other Commonwealth countries, where the
word "physician" is only used for certain
specialists and not for GPs.
191
H.S.S.
Historic Societatis Socius
Fellow of the Historical Society
The Royal Historical Society was founded in
1868. It is the premier society in the United
Kingdom which promotes and defends the
scholarly study of the past.
192
H.S.A.A.
Health Sciences Advancement Award
The Advanced Extension Awards were
introduced in 2002, in response to the British
Government's Excellence in Cities report, as a
means of testing students at the most
demanding standards found across the world.
They are aimed at the top 10% of students in
the British A Level tests, and are designed to
allow
students
to
"demonstrate
their
knowledge, understanding and skills to the
full". They are assessed completely by virtue of
external examinations.
193
J.D.
Juris Doctor (Doctor of Law) not Juris
Doctorate
Juris Doctor (Latin for "Teacher of Law") or
J.D. is a degree in law offered by universities in
a number of countries. It is considered a first
professional degree as one of the main purposes
of the degree is to provide the professional
training for those who wish to become lawyers.
Some U.S. law schools award the first
professional degree in law using the English
terms
Doctor
of
Law
or
Doctor
of
31
Jurisprudence rather than the Latin term Juris
Doctor.
194
J.S.D., S.J.D.
Doctor of Juridical Science
Doctor of Laws (Latin: Legum Doctor, LL.D)
is a doctorate-level academic degree in law.
In the United States, the LL.D. is almost always
an honorary degree. The Doctor of Juridical
Science (S.J.D. or J.S.D.), sometimes awarded
as Doctor of the Science of Law, is the degree
awarded for research in the form of a
dissertation, the equivalent to a Ph.D. in law.
195
L.H.D.
Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor
(Doctor of Humanities)
The humanities are a group of academic
subjects united by a commitment to studying
aspects of the human condition and a
qualitative approach that generally prevents a
single paradigm from coming to define any
discipline.
The
humanities
are
usually
distinguished from the social sciences and the
natural sciences and include subjects such as
the classics, languages, literature, music,
philosophy, the performing arts, religion and
the visual arts. Other subjects at times included
as humanities in some parts of the world
include
archaeology,
area
studies,
communications, cultural studies and history,
although these are often regarded as social
sciences elsewhere.
196
Litt.D.
Litterarum Doctor (Doctor of Letters)
A Doctor of Letters (Latin: Litterarum doctor;
D.Litt.; or Litt.D.) is a university academic
degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a
higher doctorate, above the Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a
committee on the basis of a long record of
research and publication.
197
LL.B.
Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Laws)
The degree of Bachelor of Laws (or
Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal
academic degree in law in most common law
countries other than the United States, where it
has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree.
It is abbreviated LL.B (or LL.B, or sometimes
LL.b): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive
plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for
Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United
32
States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal
Letters" to account for the double "L". In
Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the
first degree in common law, but is also the
name of the first degree in Quebec civil law
awarded by a number of Quebec universities.
The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally
a graduate-entry degree. Bachelor of Laws is
also the name of the first degree in Scots law
and South African law (both being pluralistic
legal systems that are based partly on common
law and partly on civil law) awarded by a
number of universities in Scotland and South
Africa, respectively. The Bachelor of Laws is
considered a professional degree as one of the
main purposes of the degree is to provide the
academic training for those who wish to
become lawyers.
198
LL.D.
Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws)
Doctor of Laws is a doctorate-level academic
degree in law. Plural abbreviations in Latin are
formed by doubling the letter, hence the double
"L".
199
LL.M.
Master of Laws
The Master of Laws is an advanced law degree
that allows someone to specialize in a particular
area of law. It is commonly abbreviated LL.M.
(also L.L.M.) from its Latin name, Legum
Magister. (For female students, the less
common variant Legum Magistra may also be
used.)
200
L.R.C.P.
Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians
See glossary
201
L.R.C.S.
Licentiate of the Royal College
See glossary
202
M.A.
Master of Arts
A Master's degree is an academic degree
usually
awarded
for
completion
of
a
postgraduate (or graduate) course of one to
three years in duration.
See glossary
203
M.Acc.
Master of Accountancy
Master of Accountancy (M.Acc., M.Ac., or
M.Acy.), alternatively Master of Professional
Accounting (M.P.Acc.) or Master Science in
Accounting (M.S.Acc.), is typically a one-
year, non-thesis graduate program designed to
prepare graduates for public accounting and to
33
provide them with the 150 credit hours required
by most states before taking the CPA exam. Or,
some graduates entering corporate accounting
or consulting may pursue the Certified
Management Accountant (C.M.A.) designation
by passing a series of exams.
204
M.A.C.
Master of Arts in Communication
See glossary
205
M.A.E.
Master of Agricultural Economics
See glossary
206
M.A.Ed.
Master of Art Education
See glossary
207
M.A.Ext.
Master of Agricultural Extension
See glossary
208
M.A.L.D.
Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy
The Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy is
a master’s degree offered by the Fletcher
School of Law and Diplomacy.
209
M.A.M.
Master of Avian Medicine
See glossary
210
M.A.M.S.
Master of Applied Mathematical Sciences
–
211
M.A.P.
Master of Arts in Planning
–
212
M.A.T.
Master of Arts for Teachers
–
213
M.A.U.P.
Master of Arts in Urban Planning
See glossary
214
M.B.
Medicine Baccalaureus Bachelor of Medicine;
Musiae Baccalaureus Bachelor of Music
Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of
Surgery, or in Latin Medicinæ Baccalaureus
et Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ (abbreviated M.B.
B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S.,
M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded
after a course of study in medicine and surgery
at a university in the United Kingdom and other
places following its usage, such as medical
schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia,
Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South
Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming
suggests that they are two separate degrees;
however in practice they are usually treated as
one.
A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or
Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree
awarded
by
a
college,
university,
or
conservatory upon completion of program of
study in music. In the United States, the
Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the
34
majority of work consists of prescribed music
courses and study in applied music, usually
requiring
a
proficiency
performing
an
instrument. Such a program lasts three to four
and a half years.
215
M.B.A.
Master of Business Administration
Master of Business Administration is a
master's degree in business administration,
which attracts people from a wide range of
academic disciplines. The M.B.A. designation
originated in the United States, emerging as the
country industrialized and companies sought
out scientific approaches to management. The
first American business school, Wharton
School of the University of Pennsylvania, was
established in 1881 (initially as an exclusively
undergraduate institution). The Tuck School of
Business, part of Dartmouth College, was the
first graduate school of management in the US.
Founded in 1900, it was the first institution
conferring advanced degrees (masters) in the
commercial sciences, the forebearer of the
modern MBA. Founded in 1898, the University
of Chicago Graduate School of Business, the
second oldest US business school, was the first
graduate school in 1940 to offer working
professionals the Executive M.B.A. (E.M.B.A.)
program, a mainstay at most business schools
today.
216
M.B.B.S.
Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of
Surgery (Medicinæ Baccalaureus et
Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ)
Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of
Surgery, or in Latin Medicinæ Baccalaureus
et Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ (abbreviated M.B.
B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S.,
M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded
after a course of study in medicine and surgery
at a university in the United Kingdom and other
places following its usage, such as medical
schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia,
Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South
Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming
suggests that they are two separate degrees;
however in practice they are usually treated as
one.
35
217
M.C.B.
Master of Clinical Biochemistry
See glossary
218
M.C.E.
Master of Christian Education;
Master of Civil Engineering
See glossary
219
M.Cl.Sc.
Master of Clinical Sciences
Master is a person holding an academic degree
higher than a Bachelor’s but lower than a
Doctor’s
220
M.C.L.
Master of Comparative Law
See glossary
221
M.C.M.
Master of Church Music
See glossary
222
M.C.P.
Master of City Planning
See glossary
223
M.C.S.
Master of Computer Science
See glossary
224
M.D.
Medicinae Doctor (Doctor of Medicine)
Doctor of Medicine (M.D. or MD, from the
Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree
for medical doctors. It varies between
countries,
from
being
an
entry-level
professional degree, to being a relatively rare
higher doctoral research degree.
225
M.Div.
Master of Divinity
In Christian theology, the Master of Divinity is
the first professional degree in Divinity in
North America, and is a common academic
degree in theological seminaries. In many
Christian denominations, and of some other
religions,
this
degree
is
the
standard
prerequisite for ordination to the priesthood or
pastorship or other appointment, ordination or
licensing to professional ministry. At most
seminaries this degree requires around 90 credit
hours of study. It generally includes studies in
Christian ministry and theology. Coursework
usually includes studies in New Testament
Greek, theology, philosophy, church history,
pastoral theology, and Old and New Testament
studies. Many programs also contain courses in
church growth, ecclesiology, evangelism,
systematic
theology,
Christian
education,
liturgical studies, Latin, Hebrew, canon law,
patristics, and the like. Courses in pastoral
counseling and psychology are also standard
parts of an M.Div. program. In addition, the
degree may or may not include a thesis.
226
M.Ed.
Master of Education
The Master of Education (M.Ed. or M.A.E.) is
a degree conferred by American institutions for
36
educators moving on in their field. Most states
require a Master's-level degree and the
certificate that goes with that work to be hired
for
educational
administration
(principal,
assistant principal, dean, consultant, etc). For
the superintendent level, typically that required
Doctoral-level work to be completed. Another
issue is that most states require continuing
course work in order for teachers to maintain
certification (especially since No Child Left
Behind requirements were implemented in
2001). Admission into a Master's-level program
typically required a Bachelors of Education
(B.S., B.A., or B.Ed) and several years'
experience in an elementary, secondary, or
special
education
classroom.
Education
programs tend to have strict standards to stay in
the program and often take more time to
complete than other programs.
227
M.E.P.
Master of Environmental Planning
See glossary
228
M.F.A.
Master of Fine Arts
A Master of Fine Arts is a graduate degree in
an area of applied or performing arts typically
requiring two to three years of study beyond the
bachelor level. Coursework is primarily of an
applied or performing nature (versus research
and academic inquiry) with the program often
culminating in a major work or performance.
Common fields of study include Theater,
Creative Writing, Filmmaking, and Visual Arts.
229
M.F.R.
Master of Forest Resources
See glossary
230
M.H.
Master of Humanities
Humanities the branches of learning having
primarily a cultural character
231
M.H.A.
Master of Health Administration
The Master of Health Administration is a
postgraduate professional Masters degree that
provides training in health policy, economics,
project and program implementation. It is
designed to give graduates of health disciplines
(in
particular)
greater
understanding
of
management issues and prepare them for senior
management roles, and is awarded by many
American,
European
and
Australian
universities. The degree traditionally focuses on
37
health administration at the local, state, and
federal level as well as in the nonprofit sector.
This contrasts with the generalist Master of
Business Administration or the Master of
Public Administration.
232
M.H.E.
Master of Home Economics
See glossary
233
M.H.P.
Master of Historic Preservation
See glossary
234
M.H.S.
Master of Health Science
See glossary
235
M.H.S.A.
Master of Health Services Administration
See glossary
236
M.I.Biol.
Member of the Institute of Biology
See glossary
237
M.I.S.
Master of Information Science
See glossary
238
M.L.A.
Master of Landscape Architecture
See glossary
239
M.L.I.S.
Master of Library and Information Studies or
Master of Library and Information Science
The Master of Library and Information
Science is a master’s degree required for most
professional librarian positions. The M.L.I.S. is
a relatively recent degree; an older and still
common degree designation for librarians to
acquire is the Master of Library Science, or
M.L.S. degree. The M.L.I.S. and M.L.S.
degrees are widely considered to be equivalent.
In the United Kingdom it is more common for a
vocational degree in library and information
science to bear the standard designation M.A.
or M.Sc.
240
M.Litt.
Master of Letters (Magister Litterarum)
The Master of Letters is a postgraduate
Master's degree which has two main systems of
use. The M.Litt. (T) is a one-year full-time
taught
degree
at
the
ancient
Scottish
universities. Usually, the degree involves nine
months of postgraduate-level courses, followed
by a short research dissertation written during
the summer months. Often the M.Litt. is
awarded here because
for the ancient
universities the first degree in the Arts and
Humanities is an undergraduate M.A. (Hons),
and contrasts with the M.Phil. degree, a more
advanced one-year research Masters.
241
M.L.S.
Master of Library Science
See glossary
242
M.M.
Master of Music
The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the
first graduate degree in Music. It is usually
earned after one or two years of further study
38
following the achievement of a first degree.
Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield
University) utilise it as a special research
degree.
243
M.M.C.
Master of Mass Communication
See glossary
244
M.M.E.
Master of Mechanical Engineering
See glossary
245
M.M.Ed.
Master of Music Education
See glossary
246
M.Mus.
Master of Music
The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the
first graduate degree in Music. It is usually
earned after one or two years of further study
following the achievement of a first degree.
Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield
University) utilise it as a special research
degree.
247
M.Mus.Ed.
Master of Music Education
See glossary
248
M.O.
Medical Officer
See glossary
249
M.O.H.
Master of Occupational Health
See glossary
250
M.O.H.
Medical Officer of Health
See glossary
251
M.P.A.
Master of Public Administration
The Master of Public Administration degree
is one of professional public affairs degrees that
provides training in public policy and
project/program implementation (more recently
known as public management).
252
M.P.A.
Master of Public Affairs
The Master of Public Affairs historically has
been a professional Master's degree offered in
public policy schools that provides training in
public policy and the operation of government,
similar to a Master of Public Policy.
253
M.P.H.
Master of Public Health
The Master of Public Health is a professional
master's degree awarded for studies in areas
related to public health. The Council on
Education for Public Health has accredited 37
schools of public health in the U.S. through a
formal review process, however, many other
schools have MPH programs.
254
M.Phil.
Master of Philosophy
Philosophy all learning exclusive of technical
precepts and practical Arts (history, language,
etc.)
In the usage of the United Kingdom, United
States, Australia, New Zealand and some other
countries, the Master of Philosophy is a
39
research degree, requiring the completion of a
thesis. It is a lesser degree than the Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.), greater than (or sometimes
equal to) the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.,)
and in some instances may be awarded as a
substitute for a Ph.D. thesis, which is a
marginal fail. It may also serve as a provisional
enrolment for the Ph.D. It is generally thesis
only, and is regarded as a senior or second
master’s degree. An M.Phil. is generally
considered equivalent to the French Diplôme
d'études Approfondies or D.E.A., Spanish
Diploma de Estudios Avanzados D.E.A., or
First Doctoral Degree.
255
M.P.P.
Master of Public Policy
The Master of Public Policy is a professional
Master's degree that provides training in policy
analysis and program evaluation at public
policy schools. Over time, the curriculum of
Master of Public Policy and the Master of
Public Administration (M.P.A.) degrees have
blended and converged, due to the realization
that policy analysis and program evaluation
could benefit from an understanding of public
administration, and vice versa. Today, the core
course offerings of many M.P.A. and M.P.P.
programs are similar, with M.P.A. programs
providing training in policy analysis, and
M.P.P. programs providing coursework in
program implementation. However, M.P.P.
programs still place more emphasis in policy
analysis, research and evaluation, while M.P.A.
programs
place
more
emphasis
on
operationalization of public policies and the
design of effective programs and projects to
achieve public policy goals. Some universities
have begun offering a combined M.P.P.A.
degree,
Master
of
Public
Policy
and
Administration.
256
M.P.P.P.M.
Master of Plant Protection and Pest
Management
See glossary
257
M.P.S., or
M.Prof.Studs., or
Master of Professional Studies
Master of Professional Studies is a (usually
terminal) interdisciplinary academic degree and
40
M.Prof.Studies.
is sometimes used for programs that do not fit
into any traditional categories.
258
M.R.A.S.
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society;
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
See glossary
259
M.R.C.C.
Member of the Royal College of Chemistry
See glossary
260
M.R.C.P.
Member of the Royal College of Physicians
See glossary
261
M.R.C.S.
Member of the Royal College of Surgeons
See glossary
262
M.R.C.V.S.
Member of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons
See glossary
263
M.R.E.
Master of Religious Education
The Master of Religious Education is a
terminal academic degree in preparation for
professional teaching ministry, usually offered
by Christian institutions. The curriculum
includes two years of theological study and
sometimes a thesis.
264
M.R.G.S.
Member of the Royal Geographical Society
See glossary
265
M.R.I.
Member of the Royal Institution.
See glossary
266
M.R.I.A.
Member of the Royal Irish Academy
See glossary
267
M.R.P.
Master of Regional Planning
See glossary
268
M.R.Pharm.S.
Member of the Royal Society of Pharmasists
See glossary
269
M.S.
Master of Science; Master in Surgery;
The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and
Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degrees
are the basic degree types in most subjects, and
may be either entirely course-based or entirely
research-based, or (more typically) a mixture.
The Master of Surgery is an advanced medical
degree. It is commonly abbreviated M.Ch. or
Ch.M. (as well as M.Chir.) from its Latin
name, Magister Chirurgiae, as well as M.S. by
programs in India.
270
M.S.A.E.
Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering
See glossary
271
M.S.Bio.C.
Master of Science in Biochemistry
See glossary
272
M.S.C.
Master of Science in Commerce
See glossary
273
M.Sc.
Master of Science
The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and
Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degrees
are the basic degree types in most subjects, and
may be either entirely course-based or entirely
research-based, or (more typically) a mixture.
274
M.S.C.E.
Master of Science in Chemical Engineering
See glossary
275
M.S.C.E.
Master of Science in Civil Engineering
See glossary
41
276
M.S.Chem.
Master of Science in Chemistry
See glossary
277
M.S.C.J.
Master of Science in Criminal Justice
See glossary
278
M.S.C.S.
Master of Science in Computer Science
See glossary
279
M.S.E.
Master of Science in Engineering
See glossary
280
M.S.Ed.
Master of Science in Education
See glossary
281
M.S.E.E.
Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
See glossary
282
M.S.E.M.
Master of Science in Environmental
Management
The M.E.M. (Master of Environmental
Management) is a degree designed for students
with
primary
interests
in
careers
in
environmental policy and analysis, stewardship,
education, consulting, or management dealing
with natural resource or environmental issues.
The program requires course work in both the
natural and social sciences, with a particular
focus on the relationship among science,
management, and policy. The ultimate purpose
of the degree program is to prepare students to
address ecological and social systems with
scientific understanding and an ability to make
sense of the complex underlying social and
ecological context.
283
M.S.E.S.M.
Master of Science in Engineering Science and
Mechanics
See glossary
284
M.S.H.E.S.,
M.S.Hu.Env.Sci.
Master of Science in Human Environmental
Sciences
See glossary
285
M.S.I.E.
Master of Science in Industrial Engineering
See glossary
286
M.S.I.S.
Master of Science in Information Science
See glossary
287
M.S.J.
Master of Science in Journalism
See glossary
288
M.S.L.S.
Master of Science in Library Science
See glossary
289
M.S.M.
Master of Sacred Music
See glossary
290
M.S.Marine Sc.,
M.S.M.Sci.
Master of Science in Marine Science
See glossary
291
M.S.M.E.
Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering
See glossary
292
M.S.Mh.
Master of Science in Engineering Mechanics
See glossary
293
M.S.Micro.
Master of Science in Microbiology
See glossary
294
M.S.Min.E.
Master of Science in Mineral Engineering
See glossary
42
295
M.S.Mt.E.
Master of Science in Metallurgical
Engineering
See glossary
296
M.S.N.
Master of Science in Nursing
See glossary
297
M.S.O.T.
Master of Science in Occupational Therapy
See glossary
298
M.S.P.
Master of Science in Planning
See glossary
299
M.S.P.H.
Master of Science in Public Health
See glossary
300
M.S.Sc.
Master of Social Science
A Master of Social Science is a taught
Master's degree in the United Kingdom.
M.S.Sc. degrees are unusual, and are almost
always postgraduate in nature. Common
subjects that would lead to the award of
M.S.Sc. include, but are not limited to, social
work, criminology, politics and sociology.
301
M.S.S.W.
Master of Science in Social Work
See glossary
302
M.S.T.
Master of Science Technology
Master of Science in Taxation
The Master of Science in Taxation is a
professional graduate degree (Master's degree)
specifically designed for Certified Public
Accountants
(CPAs)
and
other
tax
professionals.
See glossary
303
M.T.A.
Master of Tax Accounting
See glossary
304
M.T.S.
Master of Theological Studies
A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year
first theological degree offered by several
seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is
generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree
in religious studies. Unlike the Master of
Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is
an academic degree, and its goal is not to
prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not
necessarily
include
field
education
or
coursework in ministry studies. It usually
requires the completion of a scholarly thesis.
305
M.S.W.
Master of Social Work
The Master of Social Work is a type of
master's degree in the field of social work
which is received from a graduate school that
has been approved by the Council on Social
Work Education. The M.S.W. requires two
years of postgraduate study, in combination
with field experience. While some people get a
Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.) before
pursuing a Master's, most M.S.W. programs
43
accept applicants with undergraduate degrees in
broad range of liberal arts degrees.
306
M.Th.
Master of Theology
In North America, the Master of Theology (Th.
M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate master’s degree
which is sometimes earned after (or instead of)
a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a Master of
Theological Studies. This is generally a one or
two year specialized advanced degree in
theological research that many theology
students undertake in order to better prepare for
Th.D.,
D.Min.
or
Ph.D.
programs.
A
comparable degree, the Master of Sacred
Theology (S.T.M.), is offered at some
seminaries.
307
M.T.S.
Master of Theological Studies
A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year
first theological degree offered by several
seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is
generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree
in religious studies. Unlike the Master of
Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is
an academic degree, and its goal is not to
prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not
necessarily
include
field
education
or
coursework in ministry studies. It usually
requires the completion of a scholarly thesis.
The Association of Theological Schools in the
United States and Canada accredits many such
programs.
308
M.U.P.
Master of Urban Planning
The Master of Urban Planning is a two-year
academic/professional Master's degree that
qualifies graduates to work as urban planners.
Some schools offer the degree as a Master of
City Planning (M.C.P.), Master of Regional
Planning
(M.R.P.),
Master
of
Planning
(M.Plan.), or in some combination of the
aforementioned (e.g., Master of Urban and
Regional
Planning),
depending
on
the
program's specific focus. Yet other schools
offer a Master of Arts or Master of Science in
planning. Regardless of the name, the degree
remains generally the same.
309
Mus.B.
Bachelor of Music
A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or
44
Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree
awarded
by
a
college,
university,
or
conservatory upon completion of program of
study in music. In the United States, the
Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the
majority of work consists of prescribed music
courses and study in applied music, usually
requiring
a
proficiency
performing
an
instrument. Such a program lasts three to four
and a half years.
310
Mus.D.
Doctor of Music
The Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus., Mus.D.
or Mus.Doc.), like other doctorates, is an
academic degree of the highest level. The
D.Mus. is intended for musicians and
composers who wish to combine the highest
attainments in their area of specialization with
doctoral-level academic study in music.
311
Mus.M.
Master of Music
The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the
first graduate degree in Music. It is usually
earned after one or two years of further study
following the achievement of a first degree.
Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield
University) utilise it as a special research
degree.
Normal
components
includes
a
dissertation, recital, portfolio and composition.
The degree often includes research training in
preparation for doctoral research.
312
Nuc.E.
Nuclear Engineer
Nuclear
engineering
is
the
practical
application of the atomic nucleus gleaned from
principles of nuclear physics and the interaction
between radiation and matter. This field of
engineering includes the design, analysis,
development,
testing,
operation
and
maintenance of nuclear fission systems and
components, specifically, nuclear reactors,
nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons.
The field can also include the study of nuclear
fusion, medical applications of radiation,
nuclear safety, heat transport, nuclear fuels
technology, nuclear proliferation, and the effect
of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the
environment.
45
313
O.D.
Doctor of Optometry
See glossary
314
Ph.B.
Philosophiae Baccalaureus
(Bachelor of Philosophy)
Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.; occasionally
B.Ph. or Ph.B.) is the title of an academic
degree. Despite its name, in many universities –
for example, the University of Oxford – it is a
graduate degree.
315
Ph.D.
Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy)
Doctor is person holding one of the highest
titles given by a university;
PhD is an advanced university degree
The preferred form for Ph.D. is to say a person
holds a doctorate in (name their field of
specialty). Second best is to say Doctor's
degree.
Doctor of Philosophy, alternatively, "Doctor
philosophiæ", D.Phil. (meaning "Teacher of
Philosophy"), is a doctoral degree granted upon
completion of extensive academic work in a
field of study. In medieval times, any research
outside the fields of theology or medicine was
called "philosophy", hence the Ph.D. degree
covers a wide range of subjects. Contemporary
Ph.D. degrees are awarded in nearly every field
of the sciences and the humanities. In most
countries Ph.D. students traverse phases; in the
first phase, students typically complete required
courses and a comprehensive examination, the
successful completion of which marks the
beginning of the second phase, and entitles the
student to refer to him or herself as a Ph.D.
candidate. The principal task of the doctoral
candidate is writing and defending a major,
original contribution to his or her academic
discipline—usually
a
written
dissertation
ranging in length, per the discipline, from 50 to
800
pages
(10,000–200,000
words).
Dissertations typically consist of (i) a
comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline
of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of
scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or
literary analysis.
316
Ph.G.
Graduate in Pharmacy
–
317
Pharm.D.
Doctor of Pharmacy
In the United States the Pharm.D. (Doctor of
46
Pharmacy) degree is a first-professional degree
or professional doctorate that prepares the
graduate
for
pharmacy
practice.
The
multidisciplinary curriculum may focus on
pharmacy-biomedical sciences, pharmaceutical
sciences, social and administrative sciences,
pharmacy law and policy, clinical sciences and
experiential training. Entrance into a Pharm.D.
program generally does not require prior
completion of a college degree, although the
majority of accepted applicants hold one.
Typically, it takes a minimum of six academic
years after high school graduation to complete
the Pharm.D. program. Traditionally in the
United States, the bachelor's degree in
pharmacy was the first-professional degree for
pharmacy practice. However, in 1990, the
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy
(AACP) mandated that a doctorate in pharmacy
would be the new first-professional degree. As
of the year 2000, all pharmacy schools in the
U.S.
have
discontinued
the
B.S.Pharm.
(Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy) degree
program.
318
P.M.O.
Principal Medical Officer
See glossary
319
Pod.D.
Doctor of Podiatry
See glossary
320
Prof.
Professor
Professor is a faculty member of the highest
academic rank at an institution of higher
education
321
Psy.D.
Doctor of Psychology
The Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree is a
professional doctorate, which is earned through
one of two established training models for
Clinical Psychology. In the United States, the
other doctorate-level degree in
Clinical
Psychology is the PhD.
322
S.B.
Scientiae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Science)
A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less
commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin
Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate
academic degree awarded for completed
courses that generally last three years in
Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England,
Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of
47
Ireland, Israel, Latvia, The Netherlands, New
Zealand, Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec,
Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland,
Wales and South Africa; or four years in North
America, Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Scotland and Brazil. In North
America, a Bachelor of Science degree may be
a more specialized version of B.A., with more
focus on the subject and less on a broad liberal
arts background; for example, a B.S. in
economics may require several more advanced
economics courses than a B.A. in economics,
and possibly more support courses (such as
statistics). The B.S. is also frequently used for
professional areas of study such as engineering,
journalism, and advertising.
323
S.D.
Doctor of Science
In the United Kingdom and Ireland and certain
other European countries, the degree of Doctor
of Science is one of the Higher Doctorates,
typically having precedence after Divinity,
Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and
above Music. The degree is conferred on a
member of the university who has a proven
record
of
internationally
recognised
scholarship. A candidate for the degree will
usually be required to submit a selection of
their publications to the board of the
appropriate faculty, which will decide if the
candidate merits this accolade. The degree will
only exceptionally be awarded to a scholar
under the age of forty. The status of the degree
has declined because it is not widely
understood, but in former times the doctorate in
science was regarded as a greater distinction
than a professorial chair and hence a professor
who was also a DSc would be known as
Doctor. The introduction of the Ph.D. in the
twentieth century of course devalued the title
Doctor, and this practice is now defunct.
324
S.J.D.
Doctor of Juridical Science;
Doctor of the Science of Law
See doctor of laws
325
S.M.
Scientiae Magister (Master of Science)
See master's degree
48
326
S.M.D.
Doctor of Sacred Music
See glossary
327
S.Sc.D.
Doctor of Social Science
See glossary
328
S.T.B.
Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureus
(Bachelor of Sacred Theology)
See glossary
329
S.T.M.
Sacrae Theologiae Magister
(Master of Sacred Theology)
The Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.) is a
second level professional degree conferred by
seminaries and theological colleges. One must
normally have an M.Div. or an M.A. in a
religious or theological field before being
admitted to study for the S.T.M. The S.T.M.
typically is designed to enhance a student’s
academic credentials for entrance to a doctoral
program or as a way of furthering theological
education for ordained ministers. S.T.M.
degrees are typically awarded after having
completed thirty hours of study at the Master’s
level beyond that required for the first
professional degree. While the degree may be
awarded solely on the basis of taught academic
courses, most programs have the option for the
student to write a thesis. The thesis option is
especially helpful for those individuals who
wish to use the S.T.M. to further their
qualifications for doctoral study and who did
not complete a thesis or major research project
as a part of the first professional degree. Some
seminaries will also credit part of the work
done for the S.T.M. towards a student moving
on to the D.Min. degree once the S.T.M. has
been awarded.
330
Th.B.
Theologicae Baccalaureus
(Bachelor of Theology)
The Bachelor of Theology (B.Th.; Th.B. or
Btheol) is a three to five year undergraduate
degree in theological disciplines. Candidates
for this degree typically must complete course
work in Greek or Hebrew, as well as systematic
theology, biblical theology, ethics, homiletics
and Christian ministry. It does not require a
thesis but is often a year longer than a Bachelor
of Religious Education or Bachelor of Arts. In
some denominations, notably the Church of
England, it is considered sufficient for formal
ordination.
49
331
Th.D.
Theologicae Doctor
(Doctor of Theology)
Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae
Doctor) is a terminal academic degree in
theology. It is a research degree and is
considered to be equivalent to a Doctor of
Philosophy.
Traditionally,
the
Th.D.
is
designed for Christian theological scholarship,
whereas Ph.D. is for the study of Christianity in
a secular context. Clear distinction between
Th.D. and Ph.D. are indicated in the
prerequisites of both programs at Harvard
Divinity School and Boston University School
of Theology (that is, both require a professional
degree in divinity such as the MDiv). However,
in recent decades there has been a trend in
some institutions (e.g., Princeton Theological
Seminary and Dallas Theological Seminary) to
replace Th.D with Ph.D programs in the same
fields.
332
Th.M.
Theologicae Magister
(Master of Theology)
In North America, the Master of Theology
(Th. M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate Masters
degree which is sometimes earned after (or
instead of) a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a
Master of Theological Studies. This is
generally a one or two year specialized
advanced degree in theological research that
many theology students undertake in order to
better prepare for Th.D., D.Min. or Ph.D.
programs. A comparable degree, the Master of
Sacred Theology (S.T.M.), is offered at some
seminaries.
50
Glossary
An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty.
Aerospace engineering is the branch of engineering that concerns aircraft, spacecraft, and related topics. Originally
called aeronautical engineering and dealing solely with aircraft, the broader term "aerospace engineering" has
replaced the former in most usage, as flight technology advanced to include craft operating outside the Earth's
atmosphere. In analogy with "aeronautical engineering", the branch is sometimes referred to as astronautical
engineering, although this term usually only concerns craft which operate in outer space.
Agricultural economics applies the principles of economics to the production of crops and livestock.
Agricultural engineers develop engineering science and technology in the context of agricultural production and
processing and for the management of natural resources. They apply their engineering knowledge and skills to solve
problems relating to sustainable agricultural production.
Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural
practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a range of communication and learning
activities organised for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, health, and
business studies.
Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and
social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture.
Applied arts refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. Whereas fine
arts serve as intellectual stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and
creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park bench. The fields of industrial design,
graphic design, fashion design, interior design, decorative art and functional art are considered applied arts.
Arts 1. a branch of learning or university study especially one in the fine Arts or the humanities;
Art education is the area of learning that, in the United States of America, is based upon the visual, tangible arts—
drawing, painting, sculpture, and design in jewelry, pottery, weaving, fabrics, etc and design applied to more
practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings. The term "arts education" implies many things,
but is definable as: Instruction and programming in any arts area — including the performing arts (dance, music,
theater) and visual arts, creative writing, media arts, history, criticism, and aesthetics. Within the schools "visual arts
education" encompasses all the visual and performing arts delivered in a standards-based, sequential approach by a
qualified instructor as part of the core curriculum.
Asian studies is a field in Cultural studies that is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life among
Asian peoples. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to
study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial societies. Asian studies forms a field of post-graduate
study in many universities.
Associate degree - An associate degree is an academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges and
some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two
years. Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S. (Associate of
Applied Science; or in some cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S. (Associate of Occupational Studies),
A.B.A. (Associate of Business Administration), and A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies). In the United States and,
more rarely, Canada, an associate degree is equivalent to the first two years of a four-year college or university. It is
the lowest in the hierarchy of postsecondary academic degrees offered in these countries. It is also equivalent to the
UK's foundation degree. In 2000, Hong Kong introduced associate's degrees, as an equivalence to higher diplomas.
These programmes are mainly provided through affiliated colleges at universities. In 2004, Australia added
51
"associate degree" to the Australian Qualifications Framework. This title was given to more academically focused
advanced diploma courses. However, very few courses yet use the new title.
An avian veterinarian is a veterinarian who has undertaken additional training to treat birds. Birds are very
different in anatomy and physiology to dogs and cats, and to specialize in their treatment, a veterinary student must
seek out coursework and residencies that are beyond the scope of standard veterinary school.
A bachelor's degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for
a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. It may also be
the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the University of Oxford.)
Behavioral neuroscience is a field that relates behavior to bodily processes such as the inner workings of the brain.
The field is often referred to as biological psychology and psychobiology. Behavioral neuroscience is often
considered a subdiscipline within psychology or neuroscience. The main goal of behavioral neuroscience is the
understanding of behavior and experience in terms of their biological substrates.
Biological engineering (also biosystems engineering and bioengineering) deals with engineering biological
processes in general. It is a broad-based engineering discipline that also may involve product design, sustainability
and analysis of biological systems.
Building indoor environment covers the environmental aspects in the design, analysis, and operation of energy-
efficient, healthy, and comfortable buildings. Fields of specialization include architecture, HVAC design, thermal
comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), lighting, acoustics, and control systems. In total, the indoor experience is known
as the indoor environmental quality (IEQ).
Canon law is the term used for the internal ecclesiastical law which governs various churches, most notably the
Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that
such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of
churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / κανών, for
rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science, e.g.
chemistry, physics, and mathematics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or
valuable forms. As well as producing useful materials, chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering
valuable new materials and techniques; an important form of research and development. A person employed in this
field is called a chemical engineer.
Chemical pathology (also known as clinical biochemistry or clinical chemistry) is the area of pathology that is
generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids. The discipline originated in the late 19th century with the use of
simple chemical tests for various components of blood and urine. Subsequently other techniques were applied
including the use and measurement of enzyme activities, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay.
In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and
maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their
processes. Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply,
irrigation, the natural environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic.
Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants,
children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the
alleviation of symptoms or disease.
Church music or Christian music is music created by or adapted for the Christian church. It also includes
Contemporary Christian music, in which the music explores Christian themes but is designed to be played in places
52
other than churches. Music during service for many churches is a big part of the worship. Hymns are sung, psalms
are vocalized and spiritual songs are uplifted to praise God. Sometimes, musical instruments are played while
singing is implemented in the service. On the other hand, some times churches use just a cappella to worship God.
At times, just musical instruments are only used to express praise towards God. All of these ways are used by one
church or another in this period of time.
Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants,
children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the
alleviation of symptoms or disease.
Chiropractic is a complementary and alternative health care profession which focuses on diagnosing, treating, and
preventing mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, their effects on the nervous system, and on general
health. Chiropractic's premise is that spinal joint misalignments, which chiropractors call vertebral subluxations, can
interfere with the nervous system and result in many different conditions of diminished health.
[1]
Their treatments
consist of a variety of techniques and methods which chiropractors refer to as spinal adjustments. In contrast, the
term subluxation, as used in conventional medicine, is usually associated with specific conditions which are a direct
consequence of injury to joints or associated nerves.
Civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of
fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil
engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, the natural
environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic. In essence, civil engineering may be regarded as the
profession that makes the world a more agreeable place in which to live.
Communication is not only the process of sharing information. Communication processes are in most cases sign-
mediated interactions which are governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic, pragmatic and semantic.
Therefore, communication is a kind of social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of
signs and a common set of semiotic rules. In a simplistic form, information is sent from a sender or encoder to a
receiver or decoder. In a more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver. This requires a symbolic activity,
sometimes via a language. Communication development is the development of processes enabling one to understand
what others say(or sign, or write) and speak(or sign, or write), translate sounds and symbols into meaning and learn
the syntax of the language. Communication is based on the idea of respect, promises and the want for social
improvement.
Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the
channels of communication within an organization, and between organizations; it also includes the organization and
dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications
technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies,
designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including online
communication. New technology forces constant innovation on the part of communications managers.
Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law of different countries. More
specifically, it involves study of the different legal systems in existence in the world, including the common law, the
civil law, socialist law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Asian law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign
legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased
enormously in the present age of internationalism, economic globalisation and democratisation.
Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and
computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.
[1][2][3]
Computer science has many sub-
53
fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while others (such as
computational complexity theory) relate to properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the
challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to
describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific
computational problems.
Creative Arts is the term used to describe multi-disciplinary forms of expression. It is generally used as an umbrella
for
Dramaturgy,
Music
(Music
theory,
Music
history,
Musicology),
Graphic
Arts/Cartooning,
Mathematics/Egglepple, and the Visual arts.
Criminal justice refers to the system used by government to maintain social control, prevent crime, enforce laws,
and administer justice. Law enforcement (police), courts, and corrections are the primary agencies charged with
these responsibilities. When processing the accused through the criminal justice system, government must keep
within the framework of laws that protect individual rights. The pursuit of criminal justice is, like all forms of
"justice", "fairness" or "process", essentially the pursuit of an ideal.
Dental medicine or Dentistry is the art and science of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions, diseases,
and disorders of the oral cavity, the maxillofacial region, and its associated structures as it relates to human beings.
A dentist is qualified to practice dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a university (usually 4-8)
and some practical experience working with actual patients' dentition are required to become a qualified dentist. The
patron saint of dentists is Saint Apollonia, martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted.
Economics, as a social science, studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources.
Electrical engineering (sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering) is a professional engineering
discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first
became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric telegraph
and electrical power supply. The field now covers a range of sub-disciplines including those that deal with power,
optoelectronics, digital electronics, analog electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, control systems,
electronics, signal processing and telecommunications.
Engineering is the application of scientific or mathematical principles to develop economical solutions to technical
problems, creating products, facilities, and structures that are useful to people.
[1][2]
One who practices engineering is
called an engineer, and those licensed to do so have formal designations such as Professional Engineer. Engineers
use imagination, judgment, and reasoning to apply science, technology, mathematics, and practical experience. The
result is the design, production, and operation of useful objects or processes. The broad discipline of engineering
encompasses a range of specialized subdisciplines that focus on the issues associated with developing a specific kind
of product, or using a specific type of technology.
Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by
physical, chemical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the natural environment. It also refers to the theory
and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those factors in the environment that can
potentially affect adversely the health of present and future generations.
Environmental planning is a relatively new field of study that aims to merge the practice of urban planning with
the concerns of environmentalism. Essentially speaking, while urban planners have traditionally factored in
economic development, transportation, sanitation, and other services into their decisions, environmental planners
add environmental (social, ecological & economic) outcomes as important factors in the decision-making process.
What exactly constitutes the "environment", however, is somewhat open to debate among these practitioners, as is
the exact scope of the intended environmental benefits. Chief concerns among environmental planners include the
54
encouragement of sustainable development, green building technologies, and the preservation of environmentally
sensitive areas.
Family and consumer sciences, human sciences, human ecology or home economics, is an academic discipline
which combines aspects of consumer science, nutrition, cooking, parenting and human development, interior
decoration, textiles, family economics, housing, apparel design and resource management as well as other related
subjects. Family and consumer sciences combines social science, including its emphasis on the well-being of
families, individuals, and communities, and natural science with its emphasis on nutrition and textile science. The
field as it is today originated from home economics; in the U.S. the discipline developed at Kansas State University
in 1882 and spread quickly to other land grant universities after women appealed to have their own niche while the
men studied subjects such as agriculture or shop.
Forest Resources - "The Forestry major prepares you for a broad range of career opportunities involving the
management, utilization or study of forest resources."
The Geological Society of London is a learned society based in England with the aim of "investigating the mineral
structure of the Earth". It is the oldest national geological society in the world and the largest in Europe with over
9000 Fellows entitled to the postnominal FGS - over 2000 of whom are Chartered Geologists (CGeol). The Society
is a Registered Charity, No 210161. The Society was founded in 1807. It was partly the outcome of a previous club
known as the Askesian Society, and among the more prominent founders were William Babington, Humphry Davy
and George Bellas Greenough. It received its Royal Charter in 1825 from George IV.
Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. There are two parts to
health science: the study, research, and knowledge of health and the application of that knowledge to improve
health, cure diseases, and understanding how humans and animals function. Research builds primarily on the pure
sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics as well as social sciences (for example medical sociology). Other fields
which made an exceptionally significant contribution to the health sciences include biochemistry, biotechnology,
engineering, epidemiology, genetics, nursing, pharmacology, pharmacy, public health, and medicine. The health
sciences industry, a multi-billion dollar business, is a subset of the life sciences, medical care, and diagnosis
industries.
Historic preservation or Heritage management is the theory and practice of creatively maintaining the historic
built environment and controlling the landscape component of which it is an integral part. The Secretary of the
Interior of the U.S. government defines the historic environment as districts, sites, buildings, structures, objects, and
landscapes which are significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture.
Home Economics – Consumer Economics, as a field of research and an acamedic major, is a branch of both
Consumer Science and Economics. It is a broad field, principally concerned with microeconomic analysis behavior
in units of consumers, families, or individuals (in contrast to traditional economics, which primarily government or
business units). It sometimes also encompasses family financial planning and policy analysis. The term largely
describes what was more commonly called "Home Economics" in the past.
Hygiene and Good Habits are commonly understood as preventing infection through cleanliness. In broader call,
scientific terms hygiene is the maintenance of health and healthy living. Hygiene ranges from personal hygiene,
through domestic up to occupational hygiene and public health; and involves healthy diet, cleanliness, and mental
health.
Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation
and evaluation of integrated systems of people, knowledge, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial
engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical,
55
physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify,
predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. Industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of
time, money, materials, energy and other resources.
Information science (a.k.a. information studies) is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the
collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
[1]
Information science
studies the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, and the interaction between people, organizations
and information systems. It is often, though not exclusively, studied as a branch of computer science or informatics
and is closely related to the cognitive and social sciences.
Information Technology (IT) known as Information and Communication(s) Technology (ICT) and Infocomm
in Asia is concerned with the use of technology in managing and processing information, especially in large
organizations. In particular, IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store,
protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information. For that reason, computer professionals are often called IT
specialists or Business Process Consultants, and the division of a company or university that deals with software
technology is often called the IT department. Other names for the latter are information services (IS) or management
information services (MIS), managed service providers (MSP).
The Institute of Actuaries is one of the two professional bodies representing actuaries in the United Kingdom. The
Institute is based in England, while the other body, the Faculty of Actuaries, is based in Scotland. While the Institute
and Faculty of actuaries are separate institutions, they work very closely together, and the professional qualifications
and professional standards for actuaries are identical in each of them.
The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional body for biologists, primarily those working in the United
Kingdom. Membership currently stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950, received a Royal Charter in 1979
and holds charitable status. The headquarters of the Institue is located in Kensington, London, near to the Natural
History Museum and Imperial College London. The IoB is not a trade union, nor does it have regulatory power over
its membership, like the General Medical Council.
The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales (ICAEW) is the largest English and Welsh
accountancy body for chartered accountants and auditors, with over 128,000 members. There is, however, no legal
requirement for an accountant to be a member of one of the many Institutes as the term accountant does not have the
same legal protection in the United Kingdom as that given to, say, doctors and lawyers. There are, though, certain
legal rights and duties which are available to professionally qualified accountants. For example, individuals who
operate in the areas of audit and insolvency must be registered and only members of certain chartered accountancy
bodies (such as the ICAEW) are eligible for such registration. Likewise individuals who describe themselves as
"chartered accountants" must be a member of an accountancy body which holds a 'Royal Charter' and if working in
public practice these chartered accountants must comply with additional regulations such as holding indemnity
insurance and submitting to regular and independent inspections.
Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting news regarding current events, trends,
issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. Since the beginning of the 20th Century,
most journalists have traditionally been paid professionals holding a degree in this field. However, since the late
1990s, the Internet has given birth to a new form of citizen journalists.
Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and
the design of human-made constructs. The scope of the profession includes architectural design, site planning,
housing estate development, environmental restoration, town or urban planning, urban design, parks and recreation
56
planning, regional planning, and historic preservation. A practitioner in the field of landscape architecture is called a
landscape architect.
Library science or library and information science (abbreviated LIS) is the study of issues related to libraries and
the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people
interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. The organization
of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of LIS. Basic topics in LIS
include the acquisition, cataloging, classification, and preservation of library materials. In a more present-day view,
a fervent outgrowth of LIS is information architecture. LIS should not be confused with information theory, the
mathematical study of the concept of information, or information science, a field related to computer science and
cognitive science.
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a license. It exists in various African,
European and Latin American countries and represents different educational levels.
The term "management" characterizes the process of and/or the personnel leading and directing all or part of an
organization (often a business) through the deployment and manipulation of resources (human, financial, material,
intellectual or intangible).
Maritime Studies - Seamanship is the art of operating a ship or boat.
Marine science is a multidisciplinary field of study and research of ocean life and physics. Overlap areas between
the different marine science disciplines are increasingly targeted as it seems necessary to investigate these areas in
order to fully understand the workings of the marine environment.
Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and
entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media. In the United States,
many university journalism departments evolved into schools or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and
mass communication," as reflected in the names of two major academic organizations. In addition to studying
practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, students also may major in "mass communication" or
"mass communication research." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether the
focus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or media effects. Departmental structures within
such colleges may separate research and instruction in professional or technical aspects of newspaper and magazine
publishing, radio, television, and film. Mass communication research includes media institutions and processes, such
as diffusion of information, and media effects, such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion.
Mechanical engineering is a professional engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of
physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It requires a solid
understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy. Practitioners of
mechanical engineering, known as mechanical engineers, use these principles and others in the design and analysis
of automobiles, aircraft, heating & cooling systems, buildings and bridges, industrial equipment and machinery, and
more.
The chief medical officer is an official in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom who regularly advises
their respective government on health related matters. Such a person is the most senior advisor on health matters in
both systems of government, and the term has also found some usage in non-government circles such as policing. In
England, the CMO is a member of the board of the National Health Service (NHS), a civil servant in the Department
of Health, and head of the medical civil service.
Medical Science or Medicine is a branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining
or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, treatment and possible prevention of disease and injury. It is
57
both an area of knowledge – a science of body systems, their diseases and treatment – and the applied practice of
that knowledge.
Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science and technology to improve the
management of health conditions. Technologies may encompass any means of identifying the nature of conditions
and intervening with devices, pharmacological, biological or other methods to increase life span and/or improve the
quality of life.
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical
behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This
includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes such as bacteria and certain algaes. Viruses, though
not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually (but not always)
from an ore body, vein, or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver,
diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium, and
molybdenum. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes must be mined. Mining in a wider
sense can also include extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and even water.
Missiology, or mission science, is the area of practical theology which investigates the mandate, message and work
of the Christian missionary. Missiology is a multidisciplinary and crosscultural reflection on all aspects of the
propagation of the Christian faith, embracing theology, anthropology, history, geography, theories and methods of
communication, comparative religion, Christian apologetics, methodology, and interdenominational relations.
Music education comprises the application of education methods in teaching music. Music education encompasses
many areas of teaching, including music history, music theory, instrumental proficiency, singing skills, and general
music skills.
Nursing is a profession focused on assisting individuals, families, and communities in attaining, re-attaining, and
maintaining optimal health and functioning. Modern definitions of nursing define it as a science and an art that
focuses on promoting quality of life as defined by persons and families, throughout their life experiences from birth
to care at the end of life.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health
and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. As a secondary effect OSH may also protect employers,
customers, suppliers, and members of the public who may experience an impact from the workplace environment.
Occupational therapy (OT) is an applied science and health profession that provides skilled treatment to help
individuals develop, regain or maintain the skills necessary to participate in all facets of their lives. OT gives people
the "skills for the job of living" necessary for living meaningful and satisfying lives.
Optometry (Greek: optos meaning seen or visible and metria meaning measurement) is the health care profession
concerned with examination, diagnosis, and treatment of the eyes and related structures and with determination and
correction of vision problems using lenses and other optical aids
Osteopathy is a theory of disease and method of cure founded on the assumption that deformation of some part of
the skeleton and consequent interference with the adjacent nerves and blood-vessels are the cause of most diseases.
(Oxford English Dictionary). Practitioners of osteopathy, called osteopaths (or osteopathic physicians in the US),
have a holistic approach; osteopathic philosophy requires addressing the whole person in diagnosis, prevention and
treatment of illness, disease and injury, using manual and physical therapies (Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, or
OMM).
58
Pest control refers to the regulation or management of another species defined as a pest, usually because it is
believed to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.
Pharmacy (from the Egyptian φάρµακον = drug) is a transitional field between health sciences and chemical
sciences and a profession charged with ensuring the safe use of medication. Traditionally, pharmacists have
compounded and dispensed medications on the orders of physicians. More recently, pharmacy has come to include
other services related to patient care including clinical practice, medication review, and drug information. Some of
these new pharmaceutical roles are now mandated by law in various legislatures. Pharmacists, therefore, are drug
therapy experts, and the primary health professionals who optimise medication management to produce positive
health-outcomes.
A physician is a person who practices biological medicine. In the United States, the term physician is commonly
used to describe all medical doctors. In Britain, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India,
Indonesia, Republic of China (Taiwan), Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe and Hong Kong, the term
doctor is prevalent (and in formal/legal contexts, medical practitioner as well), as physician refers to specialists in
internal medicine.
Podiatry or "Podiatric Medicine" is a field of healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot,
ankle, and sometimes knee, leg and hip (collectively known as the lower extremity). The terms podiatry and
chiropody are not interchangeable, with the word chiropody being most used in the UK, and podiatry in the US.
Public administration can be broadly described as the study and implementation of policy. As a moral endeavor,
public administration is linked to pursuing the public good through the creation of civil society and social justice.
The adjective 'public' often denotes 'government', though it increasingly encompasses Non-governmental
organizations such as those of civil society or any entity and its management not specifically acting in self-interest.
Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.
Health is defined and promoted differently by many organizations. The World Health Organization, the United
Nations body that sets standards and provides global surveillance of disease, defines health as: "A state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Public health experts
agree this definition is incomplete. Other components included in an individual's health are nutritional, spiritual, and
intellectual.
The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes abbreviated to RAM) is a music school in London, England and one of
the leading music institutions in the world. It was founded by Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was granted a
Royal Charter by King George IV 'to promote the cultivation of the science of music and to afford facilities for
attaining perfection in it by assisting with general instruction all persons desirous of acquiring knowledge thereof'.
One of the most revered musical education establishments in the world, many important musicians have studied at
the Academy since then.
Founded in 1866 The Royal Aeronautical Society, also known as the RAeS, is a multidisciplinary professional
institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. The objectives of The Royal Aeronautical Society include;
to support and maintain the highest professional standards in all aerospace disciplines; to provide a unique source of
specialist information and a local forum for the exchange of ideas; and to exert influence in the interests of
aerospace in both the public and industrial arenas.
The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (RAS) was, according to its Royal Charter of August 11,
1824, established to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science
literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society has been a forum, through lectures, its
59
journal, and other publications, for scholarship relating to Asian culture and society of the highest level. It is the
United Kingdom's senior learned society in the field of Asian studies.
A Royal Charter is a charter given by a monarch to legitimize an incorporated body, such as a city, company,
university or such. In medieval Europe, cities were the only place where it was legal to conduct commerce, and
Royal Charters were the only way to establish a city. The year a city was chartered is considered the year the city
was "founded", irrespective of whether there was settlement there before.
A Royal College in some Commonwealth of Nations countries is technically a college which has received a Royal
Charter to add the prefix Royal to its name. The charter normally confers a constitution with perpetual succession
and the right to sue or be sued independently of the members from time to time, and rights of recourse to the Queen
in Council. Although incorporation is now cheaply and easily obtainable by registration, the distinction of a Royal
Charter means that such charters are still sought by and granted to institutions considered to be in the public interest,
typically learned professional societies.
The Royal College of Art (RCA) is a university in London, England, housed in the Darwin Building in Kensington
Gore, South Kensington. It is the world’s only wholly postgraduate art and design institution, offering the degrees of
M.A., M.Phil. and Ph.D. The college was founded in 1837, and was then known as the Government School of
Design. It became the National Art Training School in 1853, and in 1896 received the name The Royal College of
Art. After 130 years in operation, the RCA was granted a Royal Charter in 1967, which gave it the status of an
independent university with the power to grant its own degrees.
The Royal College of Chemistry (RCC) was a college originally based on Oxford Street in central London,
England. It existed between 1845 and 1872.The college was set up to teach practical chemistry. Many politicians
donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also
supported by Prince Albert.
The Royal College of Music is a prestigious music school located in Kensington, London.
Founded in 1882 as a successor to the National Training School for Music by the then-Prince of Wales (later
Edward VII), the school opened in 1883 with George Grove as its director. It moved to its present location in the
Albertopolis cultural quarter, next to Imperial College London and opposite the Royal Albert Hall in 1894. In the
same year Hubert Parry became director, remaining until 1918. The college teaches all aspects of western classical
music from undergraduate to doctorate level. There is a Junior Department, where 300 children aged 8 to 18 are
educated on Saturdays. It also has an extensive museum of musical instruments which is open to the public.
The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an educational body of the United Kingdom. Its role is to promote
organ and choral music and it offers musical education and training for organists and choral directors. The College
maintains the British Organ Library and provides examinations in organ-playing, choral directing and organ-
teaching. These exams are legendary for their exhausting standards and tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by
many distinguished organists for their 19th-century austerity and elitist approach.
The Royal College of Physicians of London is the oldest medical institution in England was founded in 1518 and
is one of the most active of all medical professional organisations. Since the College's creation as the College of
Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in 1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518, it has engaged in a
wide range of activities dedicated to its overall aim of upholding and improving standards of medical practice. Its
membership (and the MRCP(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who have completed the Membership of the Royal
College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the Royal College of
Physicians (LRCP) is no longer awarded.
60
The Royal College of Science was a higher education institution located in South Kensington; it was a constituent
college of Imperial College London from 1907 until it was wholly absorbed by Imperial in 2002. Alumni include H.
G. Wells and Brian May and are distinguishable by the letters ARCS (Associate of the Royal College of Science)
after their name. Organisations linked with the college include the Royal College of Science Union and the Royal
College of Science Association. The Royal College of Science originated in classes run by the Science and Art
Department. Like the South Kensington Museum, the Science and Art Department benefited from land acquired for
"educational purposes" by the commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851. The South Kensington classes
became increasingly well-regarded under the influence of T.H. Huxley.
The Royal College of Surgeons of England is an independent professional body committed to promoting and
advancing the highest standards of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery, including dentistry, in England and
Wales. The College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in London.
The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom.
Established in 1844 by Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act.
The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects in the United Kingdom.
Originally named the Institute of British Architects in London, it was formed in 1834 by several prominent
architects, including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom, William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton Donaldson and John
Buonarotti Papworth. It was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837, becoming the Royal Institute of British Architects in
London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. The RIBA is a member organisation, with 30,000
members. Chartered Members are entitled to append the letters RIBA after their name; Student Members are not
permitted to do so. A fellow of the institute may add FRIBA.
The Royal Photographic Society was founded in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the Art and Science of
Photography". It offers various levels of qualifications in photographic skills and runs an extensive programme of
lectures and events throughout the United Kingdom and abroad, through local groups and special interest groups.
The Society owns a major historic collection of photographs, photographic equipment and books which was
deposited with the National Media Museum in Bradford.
Royal School of Mines comprises the departments of Earth Science and Engineering, and Materials at Imperial
College London. The Royal School of Mines was established in 1851, as the Government School of Mines and
Science Applied to the Arts. The Royal College of Chemistry was merged into it in 1853. The School developed
from the Museum of Economic Geology, a collection of minerals, maps and mining equipment made by Sir Henry
De la Beche, and opened in 1841. The Museum also provided some student places for the study of mineralogy and
metallurgy. Sir Henry was the director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and when the collections outgrew
the premises the Museum and the Survey were placed on an official footing, with Government assistance. The
Museum of Practical Geology and the Government School of Mines Applied to the Arts opened in a purpose
designed building in Jermyn Street in 1851. The officers of the Geological Survey became the lecturers and
professors of the School of Mines. The name was changed in 1863 to the Royal School of Mines, and was moved to
South Kensington in 1872, leaving the Museum of Practical Geology behind in Jermyn Street. In 1907, the RSM
was incorporated into Imperial College of Science and Technology, but remains a "Constituent College" of Imperial.
The current Dean of the Royal School of Mines is Professor John Monhemius.
The Royal Scottish Academy is Scotland’s premier organisation promoting contemporary Scottish art. Founded in
1826, the RSA maintains a unique position in Scotland as an independently funded institution lead by eminent artists
and architects whose purpose is to promote and support the creation, understanding and enjoyment of the visual arts
through exhibitions and related educational events.
61
The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are 'to preserve,
examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as
connected with the antiquities, language, literature and history of Ireland'. Founded in 1849, it has a countrywide
membership from all four provinces of Ireland. The affairs of the Society are conducted by the President, Officers
and Council, whose services are entirely voluntary. Anyone subscribing to the aims of the Society, subject to
approval by Council, may be elected to membership. Current and past members have included historians,
archaeologists and linguists, but the Society firmly believes in the importance of encouraging an informed general
public, and many members are non-professionals.
The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multi-
disciplinary institution, based in London. The name Royal Society of Arts is frequently used by others for brevity,
but the Society itself uses either its full name or the initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of the Society use
after their name – FRSA). It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1847. Notable members have
included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and Guglielmo Marconi.
The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior literary organisation in Britain." It was founded in 1820 by George
IV, with the aim to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent." The Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and
administers a number of literary prizes and awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the Jerwood Awards and the V. S.
Pritchett Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of Companion of Literature for writers of particular note. It also
awards the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature.
Sacred music is the common Anglicized term for music related to religious rituals.
The social sciences are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. They diverge from
the arts and humanities in that the social sciences tend to emphasize the use of the scientific method in the study of
humanity, including quantitative and qualitative methods. The social sciences, in studying subjective, inter-
subjective and objective or structural aspects of society, are sometimes referred to as soft sciences. This is in contrast
to hard sciences, which may focus exclusively on objective aspects of nature. Social scientists engage in research
and theorize about both group and individual behaviors.
A social welfare provision refers to any government program which seeks to provide a minimum level of income,
service or other support for disadvantaged groups such as the poor, elderly, disabled and students. Social welfare
payments and services are typically provided free of charge or at a nominal fee, and are funded by the state, or by
compulsory enrollment of the poor themselves.
Social workers are concerned with social problems, their causes, their solutions and their human impacts. Social
workers work with individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities, as members of a profession which
is committed to social justice and human rights.
Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning "hand work") is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries
by operative manual and instrumental treatment. Surgeons may be physicians, dentists, or veterinarians who
specialize in surgery. A surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a
physician, dentist, or veterinarian.
Technology is a word with origins in the Greek word technologia (τεχνολογία), techne (τέχνη) "craft" and logia
(λογία) "saying." It is a broad term dealing with the use and knowledge of humanity's tools and crafts.
Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and
social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of
development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still
larger environment, at a less detailed level.
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