English Language Arts 6-9: Speaking and Listening: Instructional Philosophy and Teaching Suggestions
Speaking and Listening Activities
It is intended that the following speaking and listening activities be integrated with the other language
processes and not taught in isolation. In each of the following activities, both speaking and listening are
addressed to provide for the development of students' speaking and listening abilities in conjunction with
one another.
Conversation
Conversation serves many functions. People use conversation to establish relationships through personal
expression, to find out information, and to compare views with others. Conversation provides a means
for sharing experiences and solving problems.
Teachers can capitalize on the critical role of conversation in students' lives and use it to enhance their
language learning. Through experiences with the language processes, the students can discover a
steadily expanding series of topics and purposes for conversation. Students should have opportunities to
talk about a variety of topics such as projects, books, characters, television programs, and videos.
Because what students talk about is easier for them to write about, the topics of their conversations often
act as springboards for their writing.
It is important for students to converse about topics of personal interest. Ideas for classroom
conversation come to students through reading, listening to others talk, and reflecting on the experiences
that school and life have to offer. Experiences in the English language arts classroom and in other
subject areas make excellent sources for conversation. Assigned topics may not inspire students to talk
as much as student-selected topics. To facilitate and encourage student conversation, teachers could:
●
arrange a particular class period where, immediately upon entering the classroom, students go to
designated spaces to sit together in small groups and talk for ten minutes about such topics as a
television program or a school activity.
●
invite students, at the beginning or conclusion of the school day, to sit comfortably in a circle and
talk about the day's activities (e.g., What happened or what did not happen? What interested them
and why?).
To encourage interest in conversation activities, teachers should allow students to use their natural
language. This language is home-rooted and may be characterized by non-standard speech or by a
distinct dialect. Alternative ways of saying things must be accepted. When the teacher joins the
conversation, the teacher's way of speaking is one of the many acceptable alternatives and serves as a
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model for the students. As students grow in language abilities, they will make choices regarding their
own ways of speaking. Teachers must be sensitive to dialect and take care to create an environment for
acceptance and positive response to all dialects. To encourage students to use their own language and to
accept others' ways of speaking, teachers could try the following:
●
Read a short piece of writing to the class every other day. This piece should be one that easily
displays the teacher's interest and personal involvement with the writing. A deliberate search
should be made for well-written materials in local dialect, regional dialect, or authentic dialects
from a variety of ethnic groups. Conversation might then centre around the piece the teacher has
read (topic, writing style).
●
Play audio or video recordings of stories or songs illustrating a variety of English dialects from
different regions of Canada or from any other countries where English is spoken. Conversation
might then centre around the tale or melody itself, the speaker's/singer's method(s) of
presentation, or the regional area represented and the dialect spoken.
In conversation, it is important for students to have a useful vocabulary. Clarity and precision are the
keys to effective word choice in conversation. Teachers should not expect perfection from students in
the use of unfamiliar or difficult words, but rather should develop a supportive environment and group
rapport that encourage students to experiment with unfamiliar words. Students need to know that words
represent thoughts. Rather than attempting to use unusual syntax, outlandish phrases, or "big words",
students should strive to find direct and meaningful ways of making themselves understood. To help
students develop a useful vocabulary, teachers could try the following:
●
Maintain classroom charts (to be changed regularly) on which students may record a growing list
of synonyms for certain words.
●
Have students keep individual word lists to extend their speaking vocabularies (e.g., ghost:
phantom, spook, spirit, apparition; purple: mauve, lilac, violet). They may gather these from their
listening, writing, reading, and viewing activities as well as from experiences outside of the
classroom.
Students must also observe common courtesies in conversation. Some common courtesies may be
established by the whole class, and individual as well as group assessment could be conducted
periodically to see if these common courtesies are being observed. The following list includes some
useful reminders:
●
avoid topics that are unpleasant or distressing to group members
●
give everyone a chance to speak
●
state differing opinions in a respectful manner
●
speak to all members of the group
●
use effective listening practices
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avoid being too personal
●
express likes and dislikes sensitively
●
avoid confrontation and argument
●
be considerate of people joining the group after conversation has begun
●
speak in a clear voice that can be heard by everyone present
●
avoid repeating ideas needlessly, but try to tie others' ideas into comments already made.
Teachers should model the use of common courtesy in conversation at appropriate times in scheduled
classes and outside of class (e.g., in the hallways, at club meetings, around a lunch table).
Discussion
Discussion differs from conversation in that it generally has an identifiable purpose, such as coming to a
clearer understanding of characters' roles in a drama or exploring the possibilities for publishing student
writing. Discussion is similar to conversation with regard to listening carefully, considering what others
say, being courteous, and speaking so that all can hear. Many of students' conversational abilities will
transfer to discussion situations.
Discussion assists students in the development of reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving
skills. It gives them practice in expressing ideas orally in an organized manner and enables them to
arrive at conclusions, clarify or modify ideas, resolve differences, and find alternative solutions. In
group discussions, students are called upon to theorize, generalize, and make decisions. In discussions
students may encounter viewpoints different from their own. They come to see that there are many
problems for which there is no one appropriate solution. As well, discussion can serve as a means of
building consensus among group members.
Discussion Groups
Groupings of three to five are good for effective discussion. Everyone is able to contribute to the
discussion as a listener and as a speaker. In addition, a small group draws out quieter students who may
not contribute to larger group discussions.
In a small discussion group, students are able to structure their own ideas and experiences. Depending
on the classroom and the circumstances, groups may be either student-selected or determined by the
teacher. Leadership in discussion groups may emerge without appointment, but on occasion it may be
advisable to appoint leaders, giving each group member a particular responsibility. Groups need to be
rearranged from time to time to allow students to work with a variety of peers.
Before the Discussion
Before the discussion begins, it is necessary for the group to establish the purpose. An overall purpose,
for instance, might be to explore responses to a video the students have viewed; or it might be to
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consider the effect of The Great Depression on a particular writer. It is important that discussion
questions are consistent with the purposes set by the group.
Students could generate a list of questions to address before beginning the discussion. Such a list might
include:
●
What role will each group member take?
●
What do we already know or believe about the topic?
●
What do we want or need to find out?
●
How will we go about finding answers to our questions?
●
How will we assess what we have accomplished?
●
With whom will we share our findings?
In addition to setting goals, students could produce a list of discussion guidelines for the group to follow.
During Discussion
It is important for students to know that there are no hidden agendas, and that purposes and practices of
the discussion have been previously determined. Discussion is guided by the central purpose of
developing the group's knowledge or understanding of the matter being discussed. The discussion should
be open-ended, not requiring students to come to a single conclusion.
Students should be encouraged to listen closely to all ideas, ask probing questions, summarize or
paraphrase ideas, express support for one another, summarize concepts, and check for agreement. They
should understand that, when opinions differ, they are criticizing ideas and not people. Besides giving
reasons for or defending viewpoints, they must practise integrating ideas and appreciating others'
viewpoints.
After the Discussion
Most post-discussion activities will be forms of student reflection or self-assessment. For student self-
assessment, a form like the one on page 94 may be developed. Students should be involved in setting
criteria and in constructing the form.
Learning logs and journals serve as valuable self-assessment tools for individuals who participate in
discussion. The use of audiotape and videotape recordings can also provide records of students' abilities
and interactions for review and analysis.
In addition to self-assessment and reflection, members of the discussion group should assess and report
on their success as a group. An assessment form could be filled out by one group member, based upon
the consensus of the entire group. Sample forms for assessing individual participation and group
performance are on the following pages.
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Types of discussion groups are described below.
Brainstorming Sessions
The goal of brainstorming is to generate many ideas in a short period of time. A topic for investigation
could be selected from meaningful classroom experiences (e.g., How can we get more students to work
on the newspaper? How can we create an attractive bulletin board for Education Week?). The group
members suggest as many ideas as possible, building, borrowing, and using ideas freely. All ideas are
recorded and no criticism or evaluation is permitted while ideas are being generated, as the purpose of
the activity is to elicit many creative ideas or solutions.
Committees
Asking for or appointing committees can be a good strategy for involving the students in small group
work. Committee work is rewarding as long as the members consider the task important. A committee
might be formed to advertise a classroom drama production, for example; or a committee might be
useful in choosing new books for a classroom library.
Literature Circles
In Literature Circles small groups of students read sets of books at the same pace, discussing them
regularly. They may choose to read the same book or read a variety of books on one theme. These
groups help students to become more knowledgeable about writing styles and about their own speaking
styles. Students speak about what they enjoy and what they need to investigate. Discussion about books
enables students to share their responses to and their appreciation of the language, plot, characters, and
levels of meaning in a book. (More detail about Literature Circles is provided in the Reading section.)
Although students may explore the writer's craft during Literature Circle activities, it may be beneficial
to form Literature Study groups from time to time for the specific purpose of studying various elements
of the writer's craft. Literature Study groups focus on such elements as story structure, symbolism,
suspense, setting, and character, examining how the author uses these to create meaning and move the
story forward. By studying the writer's craft, students gain a greater appreciation for the author's abilities
and acquire ideas and strategies for use in their own written work.
Talking Circles
Talking Circles provide safe environments in which students are able to share their points of view with
others without fear of criticism or judgement. Talking Circles are useful when the discussion topic has
no right or wrong answer, when students are sharing feelings, and when students are considering moral
or ethical issues. As well, it is an effective strategy for reaching group consensus and for problem
solving.
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The class sits in a circle and each student has the opportunity to speak. If the circle is large, it can be
effective to seat ten or twelve students in an inner circle and the rest in an outer circle arranged around
the inner circle. Only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak and students take turns sitting in the
inner circle. The circle continues until the participants have nothing further to say on the topic.
Students may pass around a neutral object such as a stone. The person holding the object is the only one
permitted to speak. The object is passed to another student who then becomes the speaker. This
continues until everyone has had an opportunity to share.
Some guidelines for Talking Circles include the following:
●
Address all comments to the issue or topic, not to comments made by other students (avoid both
positive and negative responses to another student's comments).
●
Only one student speaks at a time, while others listen and remain non-judgemental.
●
Comments which are "put-downs" of self or others are not allowed.
●
Allow students to say "I pass" if they are not comfortable and do not criticize or penalize them
for choosing to remain silent.
●
The teacher or an appointed student serves as the facilitator who:
❍
ensures that the guidelines are followed
❍
acknowledges contributions in non-judgemental ways (a simple "thank you for your
thoughts/contribution" is all that is necessary)
❍
clarifies comments when necessary (e.g., If I understand you, you are saying...).
●
Encourage speakers to share their comments in a way that is easiest and most comfortable for
them (e.g., personal story, examples or metaphors, analytical statements).
●
Encourage listeners to focus on the speaker, supporting the speaker by taking an interest in what
he/she says, rather than tuning out and thinking about what they will say when it is their turn.
Teacher-led Discussion
General guidelines for teacher-led discussions include the following:
●
Practise different ways of involving students.
Students should talk more than the teacher and should talk to each other more than to the teacher.
Students then come to the understanding that their perspective is valuable and that they need to
listen to others' opinions and remarks. Teacher-led discussion should involve all group members,
each contributing from his or her different understanding and perspectives.
●
Give positive signals when responding to students' comments.
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Respond to comments from each student, so all will feel included in the discussion. Refrain from
asking for other ideas without first acknowledging what someone has said, and avoid
judgemental responses.
●
Ask open-ended questions that require the students to formulate new thoughts.
Ask questions that require students to predict, hypothesize, evaluate, and infer--allowing for a
variety of answers and encouraging several students to respond. It is a good idea to wait ten
seconds or so after asking a question before expecting a response. Practise asking questions that
help students become aware of their own assumptions and logic. (Occasionally, there are
instances when a teacher cannot ask open-ended questions, if the teacher wishes to lead the
students toward a particular concept. At these times, it is a good idea to emphasize the students'
personal interpretation of information before discussing the author's concept. A teacher might
ask, "What did you think of the ending of the poem?" or "What do you see as the main ideas in
this essay?")
●
Invite student participation by eliciting further response.
Encourage students to provide reasons for their statements and to elaborate on their remarks by
asking questions like "How do you know?" or "What makes you think that?" Invite students to
expand their ideas, ask for clarification, and ask students to restate thoughts.
Writing Conferences and Reading Conferences
When students take part in writing conferences and reading conferences, they become engaged in
meaningful oral language activities that encourage them to talk and listen, and that help to create a sense
of community. Oracy skills and literacy skills have a reciprocal relationship and reinforce each other.
(Writing and reading conferences are described in detail in the Writing and Reading sections of this
curriculum guide).
Storytelling
Storytelling is an oral sharing of a personal or traditional story, told using the essence of the tradition
from which it originates. As a shared experience between teller and listener, it offers natural language
experiences for students.
Storytelling can be an enjoyable activity for both tellers and listeners and should be engaged in at all
grade levels. The teacher should model storytelling before expecting students to tell stories. As well,
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students should have opportunities to listen to Native Elders and other storytellers who can provide
enjoyment and act as role models for their own storytelling experiences.
Storytelling allows students to internalize important aspects of story beginnings and endings, settings,
characters, and plot lines. It provides practice in expressing ideas in thought units, using colourful and
descriptive language, developing ideas in sequence, and choosing effective action words.
The speech abilities needed for storytelling are essentially the same ones required for all speaking
activities. Storytelling encourages students to experiment with voice, tone, eye-contact, gestures, and
facial expressions. It also lets them practise techniques for holding audience attention. Storytelling
encourages reading motivation and aids listening comprehension. It can lead directly to story writing.
Before Storytelling
As an introduction to storytelling students might tell riddles, jokes, or personal anecdotes that have some
story elements. In each case, practice beforehand is required and close attention must be paid to the
conclusion or punch line.
To ease students into the practice of storytelling, the teacher might suggest that they make up different
endings to stories that are old favourites and tell them to one another. After a story is read aloud, an
individual or group could create an add-on story and tell it. Another introductory activity is having
students recall one incident in a story they have read, and telling about that incident as though they are
one of the characters involved.
When students are comfortable with the idea of storytelling they can choose to tell tales that appeal to
them. Some of the best sources are collections of folk tales and fairytales from around the world. These
tales have been gathered from the oral tradition and are records of human survival throughout the ages,
as well as unique glimpses into cultures. Titles of suitable collections of tales for storytelling are listed in
the bibliography that accompanies this curriculum guide.
The following guidelines apply to storytellers in general (teacher and students):
●
choose a story that you like that enables you to use words you enjoy, and communicate
enthusiasm to your audience
●
look for a simple, direct story in which the plot unfolds crisply and the characters are few
●
choose a story that will not lose meaning when translated into your own words
●
memorize only refrains or phrases used for special effect
●
record yourself reading the story aloud and listen to the tape several times
●
divide the story into sections, constructing the divisions in a way that will make sense to the
listeners (e.g., use a storyboard, an outline, a diagram, or a story map)
●
visualize the settings and the characters (e.g., close your eyes and imagine each location; add
details of colour, shape, and light; make a mental picture of each character; picture facial
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expressions, hand gestures, and mannerisms)
●
next, in your mind, silently run through the story's action from beginning to end (e.g., picture the
scenes happening in sequence and develop a sense for which ones happen slowly and which ones
are fast-paced)
●
in your own words, tell the story aloud to yourself
●
continue with the visualization process as you speak, using your voice to tell about the action,
describe the settings, and speak the dialogue
●
tell the story over a few times referring to your story notes, if necessary
●
put your notes away and tell the story directly from your moving mental images (you will have
internalized the tale by now and will know it "by heart")
●
tell your story on audiotape while it is fresh in your mind and play back the recording to clarify
the visual story elements in your imagination
●
practise telling your story to a live audience (family, friends, pets) until it comes naturally.
Students may wish to tell stories from real experiences or from their imaginations, rather than retelling
stories they have read; or they may wish to retell a story they have heard. Topics for personal stories
might include how students got their names, favourite family possessions and the stories behind them,
grandparent stories, family pet stories, or pourquoi tales (e.g., where does lightning come from?).
If students like to develop their own stories, they might borrow traditional plots, themes, and story
patterns; or they may take several versions of the same story and combine them to achieve the results
they want. A story could be transposed from the past to the present or future, or a traditional tale could
be transferred from one time period or geographical setting to another. Some new stories are actually
traditional ones, reconstructed with a different perspective in mind.
While Storytelling
Listeners require a physical setting that allows them comfort during the storytelling, perhaps on a rug
and cushions in the reading corner. Listeners should be encouraged to relax and to concentrate on
understanding and enjoying the storytelling experience.
Storytellers should find a comfortable position, look directly at the audience, tell the story as they have
practised it, and let the tale do its work.
Storytellers may darken the room, play music, or do whatever helps to create an appropriate mood. They
may select visual aids or props (e.g., an article of clothing, illustrations, wordless film) to enhance the
effectiveness of their stories. These aids offer a number of advantages:
●
provide the shy speaker with a prop
●
guide students through a sequence
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●
motivate student interest
●
combine visual and oral activities.
After Storytelling
Talking with students about their listening experience after the story has been told is an important way to
develop their "story sense". As well, discussing what they have heard allows students to reflect on the
interpretations each of them has of story and how their own unique life experiences and prior knowledge
affect those interpretations. Students need time to explore thoughts and feelings about story characters
and events.
When a storyteller is ready to examine his or her storytelling style, the teacher might make arrangements
to have the storytelling process either audiotaped or videotaped. Students need to be reminded that the
storytelling process is what is important: the shaping of the story, its restructuring, and the discovery of
what it was in the story that mattered to them. Although students will strive for improvement,
performing a story in a polished way is not the primary purpose.
If an audio recording is used for self-assessment, storytellers might listen for the effectiveness of the use
of pauses, intonation, phrasing, certain sound effects, timing, repetition, or voice pitch and volume. They
can chart these on a checklist they have created for this purpose. If a video recording is used, they might
wish to assess posture, effectiveness of visual aids, hand gestures, body movements, and facial
expressions. After viewing or listening to the tape and completing the checklist, students could identify
one or two areas for improvement.
Alternatively, the teacher could write the storyteller a short, positive note. For example:
Dear Jeffrey,
You spoke clearly and your classmates enjoyed your story. I especially like your strong tone of voice and
your description of "the night".
Mr. Reynolds
Together, the teacher and students could design an assessment checklist for the storytelling process.
Following is one suggested format.
Sample Storytelling Process Assessment
Oral Reading
Oral reading is a complex process in which the reader becomes the "link" between the author and the
listeners by comprehending the selection and interpreting it for the enjoyment and understanding of
those listening. Students who read orally improve their speech and understanding, and gain much
enjoyment when they experience success.
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Students should be given many opportunities to practise oral reading, either by themselves (with an
audio recorder) or in pairs. Often, the support given by a peer changes hesitant oral readers into willing
and competent oral readers. Always provide time for sufficient practice before expecting a student to
read aloud in class.
A willing audience is necessary for success in oral reading and the teacher should prepare students to be
effective listeners. Students may read to individuals, to small groups, to the whole class, to other classes,
and to interested adults. Students benefit from listening to oral reading, and should be given
opportunities to listen to the teacher and to professionally recorded audiotapes.
Before Oral Reading
The teacher and students should identify the purpose(s) for oral reading. Some common purposes for
oral reading include the following:
●
to enjoy and appreciate (e.g., share a well-known or favourite story)
●
to respond (e.g., share a student-written story or poem)
●
to inform the audience about a topic
●
to build confidence (e.g., take turns reading a selection with a partner)
●
to practise reading with expression and enthusiasm (e.g., share a suitable story with a younger
student)
●
to serve as a springboard for discussion and writing.
Allow time for students to prepare for reading aloud. For example they may wish to "pencil in" slashes
at appropriate pause points to facilitate ease of reading, or highlight phrases to be read with extra
emphasis.
During Oral Reading
After the preparation for oral reading is complete, students are ready to read. Encourage them to:
●
read fluently, pausing and stopping at appropriate places
●
read at a suitable rate for the audience and purpose
●
use a variable and appropriate pitch and tone of voice
●
project the mood of the selection.
Listening is an important aspect of the oral reading process. Usually, the listening audience will be
listening to comprehend a message or to appreciate or enjoy. Listeners can be prepared through a variety
of pre-reading experiences such as anticipation guides and teacher (or student) narrative.
After Oral Reading
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After listening to an oral reading, students can discuss their responses in small or large groups. The
teacher or student-reader might ask questions such as, "What did you like?" or "What did you wonder
about?" Student-listeners should be encouraged to talk about their personal reactions to the oral reading.
They might also make up questions they would like to ask a character, or compare a particular character
with one from a different story. Listeners may assess their own listening abilities with a checklist similar
to the one on the following page.
If students record their oral reading on video, they could play back the tapes at a convenient time using a
checklist of criteria to assess their oral reading abilities.
Sample Listener Self-assessment for Oral Reading
Sample Oral Reading Assessment
Oral Reports
In preparing reports, students develop the ability to select material appropriate to classroom topics and to
the audience, and the ability to collect and organize material (requiring skill in reading critically, taking
notes, summarizing, and outlining). Often a report can be made more meaningful to the audience
through the use of visuals such as charts, maps, diagrams, and overhead transparencies.
Oral reports should emerge from other English language arts processes. If some students are not
comfortable with reporting, they can develop more confidence by taking part in other oral activities
before they are ready to give a report.
Before the Oral Report
Reports should be written, then presented orally. Students need to be instructed about where and how to
locate information, how to prepare notes, and how to put the information into their own words.
Students and teacher together can plan a set of guidelines for reports, which should be posted for
reference. Some suggestions include the following:
●
choose an interesting, relevant topic and remain focused on the topic
●
locate, gather, and organize relevant, accurate information
●
state sources used to support information and ideas shared
●
set a reasonable time frame that includes approximate research and writing time.
Reports should be genuine and useful. The following are examples of useful reporting in the English
language arts classroom:
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●
reporting as an extension of reading (e.g., if a class has read a story set in Newfoundland,
students may wish to report about the province of Newfoundland)
●
reporting as an extended "concept" activity for further understanding (e.g., if the class has been
studying "bias" in nonfiction, then a student could report about a magazine article indicating a
biased viewpoint)
●
reporting as a study of a different genre with related material (e.g., if a movie has been produced
based on a novel read in class, a student could give a report in the form of a movie review).
During the Oral Report
It is important that the report has an interesting, attention-getting opening and closing. Students should
use notes and simple outlines for their oral presentations. Students may assist the teacher in drawing up a
list of guidelines to follow while orally sharing reports, such as the following:
●
clear voice with adequate volume
●
presence of appropriate eye contact
●
good posture
●
effective use of nonverbals.
Some of the items listed above (e.g., eye contact) can vary across cultures and in accordance with the
situation. Teachers should also be aware of second language and dialectical differences that can be
present in students' speech, and adapt their assessment instruments accordingly.
After the Oral Report
Debriefing provides listeners with opportunities to make connections between what they know and what
they have heard. Listeners can extend their understanding of information and concepts through
discussion or written responses.
Debriefing also helps speakers assess how well they have expressed themselves. Speakers might assess
their success using a learning log entry similar to the one on the following page. Teacher assessment
may take the form of an assessment checklist or rating scale, a letter to the student, or a student-teacher
interview. It is important that students are aware, at the outset of the project, of the criteria upon which
they will be assessed.
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Directions
The ability to give clear oral directions is a skill that can be taught and practised in the context of
English language arts activities.
Before Giving Directions
The teacher and students should consider the requirements for giving clear directions and prepare a list
such as the following:
●
structure the "direction-giving" talk beforehand
●
organize instructions sequentially and logically
●
include adequate supporting description and detail
●
provide relevant, accurate, and complete information.
While Giving Directions
The students should:
●
be certain there is a sequence of steps or an organized set of rules
●
use key words that provide description and detail and allow for mutual understanding
●
follow the same rules they would for other oral presentations regarding speech, volume, tone, and
nonverbals
●
use effective listening strategies by focusing on the speaker's information, listening for details,
asking appropriate questions, and restating the speaker's words.
The following are examples of direction-giving talks students might prepare in the context of language
arts activities:
●
explaining how a board game works, if the game was constructed as a result of a reading
selection or in response to another English language arts activity
●
explaining how to make bannock, if extended activities involving foods were planned to
accompany Literature Circles.
After Giving Directions
Self-assessment may take the form of a learning log or journal entry. Peer evaluation might include
discussion (e.g., "Did the group understand what was to be done and how to do it? What was one
especially good quality of the presentation? What might be one suggestion for improvement?"). Teacher
assessment could be conducted using a checklist similar to the one on the following page.
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Sample Direction-giving Assessment: Anecdotal Notes
Telephoning
The telephone is an important tool for personal, school, and business use because of the rapid
communication it permits. Therefore, there is need to reinforce personal speaking and listening abilities
regarding telephone use.
Before Telephoning
Students could brainstorm ideas about basic telephone etiquette and generate a list such as the following:
●
answer the telephone as quickly as possible
●
identify yourself immediately when receiving or placing a call
●
keep the call brief and the talk relevant
●
show respect for the listener's time and give full attention to the conversation
●
offer to take a message if the call is for another person and record the message in writing
●
treat every caller politely and professionally
●
be helpful and co-operative
●
prepare for receiving and placing calls by planning what you might say and anticipating what you
might hear (e.g., list dates, write down important questions, keep standard message pads as well
as important reference material near the telephone)
●
follow up telephone conversations with notes or letters, when appropriate.
While Telephoning
Students must have authentic reasons for telephoning when they are practising their skills in the English
language arts classroom. Reasons can include the following:
●
to inquire about suitable times and dates for a trip to the museum, as a follow up to a unit in
historical fiction
●
to plan a visit to a senior citizens' home for an "adopt a grandparent" reading program
●
to order materials for a research report or other project
●
to order class tickets to a theatre performance
●
to inquire about details concerning a class trip
●
to invite or arrange for a community speaker, author, or storyteller to come to the class.
While telephoning, the student should practise the techniques previously established by the class.
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After Telephoning
As soon as possible after telephoning, students should complete a self-assessment form based upon
criteria established prior to their placing the call. A sample checklist follows.
Sample Telephone Self-assessment Checklist
Student's Name:
Date:
Person Spoken To:
Reason for Call:
1. Was I polite and professional?
2. Did I identify myself immediately?
3. Was I prepared with notes and a note pad?
4. Did I attend to the listener?
5. Did I show respect for my listener?
6. Did I keep the call brief and on topic?
7. Did I double check my facts?
8. Did I follow up on the conversation with a note or letter?
Announcements
Making announcements can serve as useful oral speaking practice at any grade level. As with other types
of speech activities, criteria for making announcements should be developed by the class. These criteria
should address the recommended format and manner of presentation and serve as guidelines for the
students. Some guidelines include the following:
●
provide all necessary and relevant information (who, what, when, where, how)
●
record and review key points prior to making the announcement
●
confirm accuracy of information
●
use vocabulary that is appropriate for the audience
●
speak in a friendly and enthusiastic manner
●
speak slowly, audibly, and clearly
●
observe listeners to be certain they are understanding the message and clarify as needed.
After the announcements are made, peers or the teacher might write the student announcer an informal
note, commenting on the strengths of the presentation and including one suggestion for improvement.
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Listeners should be encouraged to concentrate on the speaker making the announcement, taking care not
to become distracted. As well, listeners should give appropriate responses to the speaker, confirming
their understanding or asking questions for clarification.
Interest Talk
The more formal "interest talk" can be the basis for learning if it is accompanied by opportunities for
exploration beforehand. A supportive environment is necessary for encouraging talk in formal situations.
It is important to provide learning situations that encourage the sharing of both work-in-progress and
completed ideas and information. The interest talk is not memorized; it flows from the student's own
knowledge of the topic. The interest talk generally attempts to inform the audience.
Before the Interest Talk
Students need to choose topics that interest them. They should have a clear idea of the topic, when and
where they will be presenting the talk, the purpose of the talk, and the nature of the audience. Next, they
need to gather information and develop an outline for the talk. An outline helps students develop a
comfortable familiarity with their material. Students may wish to prepare index cards with points
outlined on them and they may choose to use visual aids to enhance their presentations (e.g., use of a
slide projector, computer display, audio or video recordings, overhead transparencies, chart paper or
chalkboard, posters, photographs, illustrations, or graphs).
Students should be encouraged to practise their talks in front of an imaginary audience, a mirror, or a
friend. Together the teacher and students may create a list of guidelines for practice similar to the one
below:
●
monitor volume and rate of speed to be sure everyone can hear and understand you
●
practise the use of emphasis and pitch so your voice sounds natural
●
use appropriate nonverbal cues for emphasis and interest
●
practise using the index cards in a discreet way
●
review index cards to be sure that the notes spark your memory and support you as you speak
●
review your talk (e.g., ask: "Have I omitted anything important or included anything
unnecessary? Do my points flow smoothly and logically from one to the other?")
●
review visual aids to determine their effectiveness
●
practise using the visuals (number them if you have several).
During the Interest Talk
If the student is prepared, the interest talk itself should be an enjoyable experience. Interest talks can
take a variety of forms, from a five-minute review of a movie to a fifteen-minute slide presentation
accompanied by explanations. Students should be reminded to speak in a relaxed but enthusiastic and
confident manner.
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After the Interest Talk
Peer assessment could be done by three or four members of the class, rather than the entire class. The
assessors could write answers to questions such as the following:
●
What were the purposes of the talk?
●
How well was the talk timed? Explain.
●
Were visual aids used? If so, explain why they were (or were not) helpful.
●
Was the talk presented in logical sequence? Comment.
●
Did the audience seem interested? How do you know?
●
What might this student do in the future to improve the presentation?
Assessment criteria should be discussed or developed with students prior to beginning an interest talk
project. A sample checklist follows.
Sample Interest Talk Assessment
Introducing a Speaker
Students should be given opportunities to introduce speakers when occasions in the English language
arts classroom warrant speaker introductions (e.g., visiting authors, community members, student
presenters). Introductions should be thoughtfully prepared, reasonably brief, and delivered in a clear
voice.
Before the Introduction
With the students, the teacher may draw up a list of guidelines for introductions such as the following:
●
research or ask questions about the person to be introduced and his/her topic (it may be helpful to
talk directly to the person to be introduced)
●
prepare brief notes based on the research
●
address audience members directly, sincerely, and politely
●
clearly present introductory information about the speaker's topic or purpose for being in
attendance (maximum four or five points)
●
use appropriate volume, pitch, and tone (practise beforehand)
●
welcome the speaker on behalf of the group in a warm sincere manner
●
pronounce the speaker's name clearly and correctly (check pronunciation ahead of time).
During the Introduction
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The speaker should direct comments to the audience, making remarks and gestures that draw attention to
the person being introduced. Listeners are encouraged to focus on the speaker and to respond
appropriately when the introduction is completed.
After the Introduction
At a suitable time, discuss the introduction with the class: what went well and what could be improved.
The teacher or a few peers could make anecdotal notes or fill in checklists of appropriate criteria during
the introduction. A sample assessment checklist for teacher or peer is shown on the following page.
Sample Assessment for Introducing a Speaker
Thanking a Speaker
Students should also be given opportunities to thank speakers when occasions in the classroom warrant
it (e.g., visiting authors, community members, other teachers and students). A thank you should show a
sincere appreciation for the speaker's effort or message and should reflect the relevance the message has
had for the audience. Teachers may want to develop an assessment tool similar to the one for
Introducing a Speaker, which is shown on the following page.
Choral Reading or Speaking
Choral reading or speaking is simply reading or speaking in unison under the direction of a leader.
Choral speaking offers genuine opportunity for problem solving as each group works out its own
presentation. It has three major purposes:
●
learning
●
performance
●
enjoyment.
Practising choral speaking or reading does not necessarily mean there must be a performance. Practice
has its own value whether the product is shared with others or not.
Choral speaking or reading has many benefits:
●
Because it is a group activity, it provides for co- operation and directs all students toward a
common goal.
●
It can be successful regardless of class size or grade level, and is useful in multi-grade classrooms
and for ESL students.
●
As students are not speaking alone, they may feel less conspicuous or intimidated, and this offers
greater opportunities for those who are shy or withdrawn to speak.
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●
It provides for speech improvement in pitch, tone, volume, rate, diction, enunciation, and clear
interpretation of selections.
Several types of choral speaking or reading are appropriate for classroom use:
●
Refrain is one of the most common forms of choral speaking. One person reads the narrative
portion of the text while the rest of the class joins in the refrain.
●
Unison calls for the whole group to read the material together. Additional sound effects might be
incorporated.
●
Antiphon calls for the class to be divided into two or more groups, with each group being
responsible for a certain part of the selection.
●
Cumulative choral reading or speaking refers to a method where groups of voices or individual
voices are added to or subtracted from the choral reading, depending on the message or the
meaning communicated by the selection.
●
Solo Lines is a type of choral reading where individuals read specific lines in appropriate places
throughout the group activity.
●
Line Around is more solo work where each line is taken by a different person in the group.
Before Choral Speaking or Reading
Some preparation guidelines include the following:
●
Select material with care (students, or teacher and students). It should reflect student interest and
preference as well as student vocabulary level. Poetry is especially suitable for choral speaking,
particularly poetry that contains some repetition (e.g., ballads, narrative poetry, adventure
poetry).
●
Give advance thought to interpretation. Discuss meaning and the various ways of reading the
material to bring out the meaning.
●
Consider suggestions for improvements after practice readings, including suggestions for
improving phrasing and diction.
●
As the students become more experienced, they will offer suggestions as to which lines may be
most effectively delivered by the whole group, by part of the group, or by individuals.
●
The amount of time spent preparing a poem or other selection will vary, but it is more important
to keep the enthusiasm alive than to strive for perfection.
●
Students who will be listening to the choral readings should be prepared for the listening
experience. They should be willing to listen attentively, without distracting the speakers; they
should also prepare to respond regarding the effectiveness of the speaking activity (e.g., sound
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arrangement, choral patterns).
During Choral Speaking or Reading
Students may divide their groups into "lighter and darker" voices (considering tone quality) or "high and
low" voices (considering pitch), or they may decide to mix the groups. After choosing one of the types
of choral speaking and practising it, students should deliver it with enthusiasm and enjoyment.
As students continue to experiment with different elements of oral interpretation in their groups, the
teacher should circulate among groups to monitor progress and provide encouragement. Student groups
may share their interpretation with the whole class or with one other group. Positive comments should
be offered by peers.
After Choral Speaking or Reading
Teachers should record notes and observations about student oral language development. Observations
should be made regarding students' involvement in choral speech, willingness to consider and offer
suggestions, efforts to discuss and interpret the selections, and ability to use correct terminology (e.g.,
pitch, volume).
Teachers may wish to start a video recording library of student choral speaking selections and
performances that can be used during assessment, or serve as models for other students. As well,
teachers may encourage students who would like to present their work at assemblies or concerts. Invite
students to collect and share favourite materials for future choral speech. Be sure that there is an
opportunity to include selections that correspond to unit themes currently being explored or that are
personally meaningful to the students. Encourage students to experiment further with the dramatic
elements in choral speech (e.g., light/dark, sound/silence, movement/stillness) in order to create mood
and atmosphere in their oral interpretations.
Puppetry
In the classroom, puppets are creations that "come to life" with the help of student puppeteers. Almost
any object can be a puppet. An effective puppet is one that can be manipulated easily; however, it is not
what the puppet looks like that counts, but rather how the student feels about, and uses, the puppet.
Puppets can be incorporated into a variety of oral language strategies including storytelling, oral
reporting, and choral speaking.
Puppetry is a valuable learning practice for many reasons:
●
Dressing and decorating puppets require imagination. Each puppet must become a character
through its costume and through the way it is decorated or painted.
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●
Puppetry requires students to engage in speaking activity; the use of the puppet has the advantage
of shielding the speaker who is shy.
●
Puppetry offers an avenue of expression, allowing the puppeteer to express the thoughts and
feelings of the characters being portrayed.
●
Working with puppets demands co-operation; students learn to work together for a successful
performance.
●
Puppetry is inexpensive; excellent results may be obtained within the most limited budget.
●
Puppets are capable of behaviours (e.g., fighting) and feats (e.g., flying, shrinking) which would
be undesirable or impossible for student performers.
●
Telling stories with puppets is fun; it provides students with enjoyment.
Some guidelines for preparing for puppetry activities include the following:
●
The teacher and students discuss the characteristics that make a puppet play interesting to watch.
Student responses are listed and posted.
●
The teacher asks students to suggest stories they have read or to create their own stories that may
be turned into puppet plays.
●
The teacher and students discuss the types of puppets which might be suitable for each story, and
that are practical given time, cost, and materials available.
●
The teacher and students list a set of guidelines and tasks required for adapting and presenting a
story as a puppet play (e.g., audience attention span, availability of materials for making puppets
and sets, special skills required).
●
Students form groups of 4-6, with each group responsible for selecting or creating a story;
adapting it to oral dialogue format; creating puppets, sets and props; and practising the play.
Emphasis in rehearsal must be on creating and maintaining consistent voices and movements for
each of the puppet characters. Students not handling puppets might serve as technical crew (e.g.,
lighting, sound).
●
Groups are given time to organize and accomplish their tasks.
During the performance of puppet plays, consider the following:
●
As each group shares its play with the class, listening students are encouraged to record positive
comments and constructive suggestions to help the group members refine their performance.
●
The teacher should record anecdotal notes regarding the performance.
●
If plays are to be presented to other audiences (e.g., a class of younger children), groups should
be given the opportunity to rehearse several times before the presentation.
●
The teacher and students may wish to record puppet plays on video to be stored with the puppets.
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●
Familiar folk and fairy tales are dependable choices for puppet plays. Some additional puppetry
activities include choric work with puppets, situational role playing with puppets, interviews, and
small group problem solving. Students could also explore the puppetry of various cultures.
After the performance of puppet plays, discuss the various aspects of the puppet play presentations with
students. Some students may choose to write or draw in response to the puppet play they have created or
viewed (e.g., journal writing, creating dialogue for another puppet play, illustrating the setting).
Using anecdotal records, the teacher should note observations made while students were taking part in
the entire activity:
●
abilities to co-operate in the group task
●
participation in class discussion
●
combining of personal experience with knowledge of stories to create a puppet play
●
creation of believable dialogue
●
efforts to use their voices to communicate the puppets' attitudes and personalities.
Role Play
Role play provides the opportunity for students to develop and revise their understanding and
perspectives by exploring thoughts and feelings of characters in given situations. The teacher may take a
role, becoming an active participant in promoting independent thinking and co-operative learning.
The difference between role play and drama in context is that role play is a strategy for exploration and
does not attend to structure or aesthetic concerns. Role play can be used to explore one situation or
episode and does not need to be structured in beginning, middle, and ending episodes. Closure can be
achieved through reflection or debriefing, rather than through a specific ending in the role play.
Role play helps students to develop:
●
empathy as they examine others' ideas, feelings, and points of view
●
oral expression and interpretation skills as they use language to describe perceptions, emotions,
and reactions
●
decision-making and problem-solving skills as they gain experience in independent thinking and
co-operative learning
●
speaking and listening abilities.
Before the Role Play
Explore possibilities concerning sources for role plays. While literature is the most frequently used
source, the media and students' life experiences are also rich sources of role play situations and issues.
Carefully plan for integration of all language processes into the role play. The following describes a
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method of planning a role play:
●
choose a topic or theme (one that has a number of potential learning concepts) currently under
study
●
identify relevant concepts within the topic (webbing is useful for discovering possibilities)
●
select a concept, being sure that there is a compelling issue involved, that it has human conflict
within it, and that there are roles to play for the number of students to be involved
●
decide upon a key question about the concept or issue selected
●
list the possible viewpoints that might be adopted
●
place each viewpoint within a situation (or set of circumstances) in such a way that those
characters involved are faced with a problem which needs resolving
●
choose a situation for the drama, and roles for students and teacher.
The beginning framework for a sample plan follows:
Topic/Theme Choice - Novel: Cowboys Don't Cry
Possible Concepts - Friendship, Ranches, Rodeos, Horses
Possible Selected Concept - Rodeos
A Key Question - How do children of circuit rodeo contestants cope with their parent's rodeo lifestyle?
(This question involves individuals and introduces human conflict.) Sample viewpoints and
corresponding situations are listed on the chart that follows.
Cowboys Don't Cry
Viewpoints
Possible Situations or Circumstances for Role Plays
Shane's Teachers
deciding at a staff meeting what should be done about fighting at school
meeting to report on results and concerns regarding extra-curricular activities
(e.g., track, dances)
The Sutherland Family
speaking with one another over supper to discuss Shane's injuries and what
they can do to help
meeting with members of Social Services who have become concerned about
adequate parental supervision for Shane
Other Rodeo Contestants giving advice to Josh about raising his son, at an informal gathering at the
end of a rodeo
The next step is to select one of the situations to begin with and choose viewpoints for participants. For
example, students may choose the situation in which "The Sutherland family meets with Social Services
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personnel"; then they must decide who will play each role.
Further preparation for role play includes the following:
●
engaging students in activities that foster commitment in the role play (e.g., questioning,
interviewing, narration, drawing, guided imagery)
●
setting up the room physically (this may vary from simply rearranging desks to more complicated
changes including furniture and lighting)
●
having students decide how they will first enter the role (giving all the information needed,
speaking with the voice they wish to establish; allowing others to understand immediately who
they are, where they are, and what is happening)
●
inserting some type of tension into the drama to keep everyone interested (e.g., conflicting
priorities, a challenge, a sense of urgency, secrecy, a problem to solve, mystery).
During Role Play
It is important that students feel safe taking risks as they enter into various roles. Establishing
expectations and rules (e.g., no put-downs) with students can help students to be supportive of each
other during the role play. Listeners should be encouraged to observe attentively so that they are
prepared to respond and discuss following the drama.
If the role play has been planned effectively and all the steps have been carried through, the experience
should be satisfying and positive for all participants.
After the Role Play
Assessment of role plays will mainly occur through reflective discussion and through assessment of the
products which develop in response to the drama (e.g., written work, art work). Student participation is
important; however, participation does not always involve talking. It is possible for a student who has
remained very quiet during the role play to write effectively and thoughtfully about the experience.
Improvisational Drama and Pantomime
Improvisational drama can be used to extend students' range of oral language and increase their
understanding of human experience. It enables students to gain problem-solving experience in
unpredictable situations. Through improvised drama, students build social skills. They become more
sensitive listeners and more adept conversationalists.
Improvisation is often used as a strategy to help students develop a contextual drama or role play.
However, improvisation can be accomplished with more spontaneity and with less comprehensive
planning. It often involves asking students to provide their own mini-story, based on materials and ideas
relating to some aspect of the English language arts program. Interpretation will involve spontaneous
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movement and vocalization. Sounds, objects, issues, traditions, and life experiences are a few of the
"springboards" that may motivate improvisation.
Different types of improvisation include the following:
●
A spontaneous interview might take place in a talk-show format, with one student as the
interviewer and another as a character from a novel, story, or poem. The interviewer needs to
establish a time and place being referred to in the selection, and then ask questions of the
character. The character should be encouraged to elaborate when replying, rather than giving one-
word answers.
●
A variation would be to have one student, who has not taken on any identity, approach and wait
for a second student (who has decided to "be" a particular character). The second student would
establish an identity, and establish what the circumstances are through actions and conversation.
The first would "become" the character needed to respond to the second, after recognizing the
second person's identity. Then the second student could become the one without an identity,
waiting for a third student to approach, and so on.
●
In a more complicated four-person exercise, two students become certain characters from a
selection, with the other two becoming their consciences. The consciences talk to their characters,
saying the things that are supposedly "driving" the characters' thoughts and actions. The two
characters interact as any two people might, taking cues from their consciences. Each character
can react only to what the other says (and does) and his/her own conscience. He/she cannot hear
the other person's conscience. The two consciences cannot react to each other. This exercise
results in effective comprehension and powerful improvisational drama.
Teachers will find that they can develop their own activities for improvisation as their classes progress.
It is important for students to know that they must always demonstrate what is going on rather than
simply telling or narrating. It is also critical that teachers accept each student's appropriate
improvisational interpretation. Ask students to explain why they chose to interpret things in particular
ways or request elaboration regarding their interpretations. Outcomes of all scenes should be discussed
with the participants and the listeners. Both the improvisations and the discussions that result may be
used to spark writing or other reflective activities.
Pantomime is often used as a method of introducing improvisation. Many students are more willing to
speak spontaneously if they have become comfortable with movement first. Pantomime (conveying
ideas without words) encourages students to use their entire bodies in dramatic expression. Although
pantomime is a silent activity, it is included with the oracy section of the curriculum because it serves as
a preparation for dialogue, and because much oral language is used in discussing pantomime before and
after it is performed. As well, nonverbal communication used in pantomime can later be used to support
and enhance verbal communication.
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Pantomime is particularly useful for exploring the five senses, for portraying mood, for creating a
character or plot, and for telling a story. Pantomime stimulates the imagination and clarifies perception
as students try to remember sequencing of actions and what objects are like in terms of size, weight, and
shape. Concentration and close attention to detail are necessary for recalling and expressing emotion
silently. Close observation of people is a way of developing believable characters whose movements
belong to them and whose behaviours seem appropriate. A full-length mirror is useful for rehearsing
pantomime, from total body movement to producing the facial expressions for one who is happy,
frightened, angry, or surprised. Video recordings help to show the development of a sequence and to
view the final outcome.
It is important that players are not told how they feel, but rather provided with the circumstances and the
mood which enables them to portray the appropriate emotions.
Sidecoaching pantomime, where a reader who is "off to the side" provides the reading of a narration
that other students pantomime, may be a starting point for Middle Level students. The reader might read
from a piece of edited literature or from a student-written script.
Drama in Context
Structured drama experiences play an important supportive role in the speaking, listening, writing, and
reading processes by allowing students to discover and experience the interdependent nature of
communication. Drama experiences such as drama in context help students to develop:
●
empathy as they examine others’ ideas, feelings, and points of view
●
oral expression and interpretation skills as they use language to describe perceptions, emotions,
and reactions
●
decision-making and problem-solving skills as they gain experience in independent thinking and
co-operative learning
●
speaking and listening abilities.
Dramas in context are structured explorations of situations, issues, or topics. A drama in context is an
evolving drama experience, rather than one based on a script. The structure evolves as the drama
progresses through constant reflection and on-the-spot planning by the teacher and students. The overall
structure of the drama includes starting points (beginnings), exploration episodes (middles), and closure
(endings). This attention to structure differentiates dramas in context from role plays. Contextual dramas
may take place in one class period or they may continue over several periods, evolving in new directions
as students’ imaginations lead them to explore new possibilities.
Within dramas in context, students explore fictions, issues, events, or life experiences and create their
dramatic explorations based on personal response and group decision making. Drama in context includes
students in all phases of the experience, from the initial planning right through to the final reflection
session.
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The main purpose of drama in context is to have students imagine the thoughts and feelings of others in
meaningful situations. Students should also attend to the aesthetic aspects of their drama by considering
such elements as conflict, contrasts, and the use of imagery. Although dramas in context are usually not
intended for an audience, some might be developed into "collective creations" and presented to other
students or parents.
Role of the Teacher
The teacher’s role is extremely important in contextual dramas. In addition to maintaining a classroom
climate that is conducive to creative thinking and problem solving, the teacher adopts roles in the drama
and works along with the students. This places the teacher in a position to guide the students’ learning
from within the drama. The teacher can stimulate the students’ imaginations by providing starting points
for their thinking (e.g., by adopting the role of a messenger with a mysterious letter).
It is essential that the teacher ask appropriate questions throughout the drama. The most important
questions in helping students plan a drama in context begin with "what if" (e.g., What if this character
encountered ...? What if this took place in ...? What if the battle had been lost and the people were faced
with ...?)
Before the Drama in Context
Before participating in a drama in context, students and the teacher should:
●
decide on a topic and focus for beginning the drama
●
learn about the many strategies they could use during the drama (e.g., role play, improvisation,
tableaux, journal writing, interviews)
●
agree on the expectations for participation and group decision making
●
agree on criteria and methods for assessment.
During the Drama in Context
During the drama both teacher and students work in role. Some students will adopt the role of a
particular individual (e.g., the chairperson of a board) and some students will work as a group (e.g., the
stockholders at a company meeting). The roles should change throughout the drama and students should
be provided with opportunities to work in a variety of groupings: whole group, small group, pairs,
individually, and half and half ( half work, half watch).
During the drama, the teacher asks questions that encourage students to explore, seek information,
branch out in different directions, express opinions, reflect on their work, and decide in which direction
to go next. At any point in the drama, the work can challenge the teacher and students to choose new
strategies and alter their process. They should remember that dramas in context develop episode by
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episode as the work progresses and as students’ imaginations provide new possibilities.
After the Drama in Context
Reflection can take may forms. Discussion can be initiated with questions such as the following: What
was our purpose and did we achieve it? What new thoughts did we have about the situation we
explored? If we were to continue the drama, in what direction might it go?
Reflection can also include journal writing, drawing, and other personal responses. Participation in
dramas in context should be assessed in a variety of ways, as it cannot be assumed that quiet students are
not engaged in the drama.
Structuring a drama in context is a complex process involving extensive planning, problem solving,
and reflection by both teacher and students. Teachers wishing to explore drama in context further
should consult the drama strand of the arts education curriculum guide for planning information.
Teachers might consider a collaboration with the drama teacher.
Readers Theatre
Readers Theatre is a form of dramatic interpretation that involves students in reading scripts orally.
Readers Theatre requires no scenery, costumes, or action. Readers convey mood, tone, and emotion, and
suggest character through the use of their voices, facial expressions, and gestures.
Although it is intended to be shared with an audience, Readers Theatre is also very process- oriented. It
provides opportunities for students to practise both their reading and speaking skills, and is an effective
strategy for helping students develop confidence in their reading abilities so that they will move on to
solo oral reading. As well, if struggling readers are grouped with fluent readers, it helps them to read
more fluently.
Generally, selections for Readers Theatre include five or six readers for each piece. Selections should be
able to hold the interest of the readers and the audience through vivid oral expression. Students may
write their own scripts, or script short stories, novel excerpts, nonfiction, and epic or narrative poetry. As
well, short plays or excerpts of plays may be fun to perform.
Purposes of Readers Theatre include the following:
●
to develop awareness that oral reading in a Readers Theatre experience is one way to
communicate a piece of literature, as well as a way to interpret and understand characters
●
to provide experience in choosing play scripts for reading or in adapting selections for Readers
Theatre presentations
●
to practise using voice to interpret dialogue and communicate meaning
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●
to increase enjoyment of oral reading and listening
●
to increase appreciation of literature.
Before Participating in Readers Theatre
Some guidelines include the following:
●
have students write or select a script or character part based on their interests and reading abilities
●
establish roles (e.g., narrator, characters, director)
●
provide one script to each student who will be reading (it is helpful for readers to highlight their
own roles with coloured markers)
●
have students read the script silently
●
discuss and explain any difficult or unfamiliar vocabulary
●
invite students to speculate about the characters (How might they speak? What kind of facial
expressions might they have? What kind of gestures would the character make?)
●
have students read aloud through the script as often as is necessary to become confident and
fluent in their roles
●
help students to determine how they can most effectively stage their reading (e.g., all readers
seated or all standing, some readers seated while others stand, all readers in a straight row, some
readers in front or behind others).
During Readers Theatre
During Readers Theatre, it is important to consider the following:
●
readers hold copies of the script as they read or scripts can be placed on music stands
●
readers may choose to look at a point over the heads of the audience, unless they decide together
to interact in appropriate ways (e.g., looking at another reader while speaking)
●
the audience members are seated and listen attentively as they use their imaginations to enjoy the
readers' interpretation of the script.
After Participating in Readers Theatre
Some activities to consider following Readers Theatre include:
●
have students discuss or write about how their interpretation of the performance relates to their
personal experience or prior knowledge
●
allow time for small group reflective discussion by the readers of the script
●
assess students by making anecdotal notes as students read and listen (e.g., use of volume and
pitch, pronunciation of new vocabulary, awareness of character development, use of gestures and
facial expressions, effective pauses, attention and awareness of listeners).
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Presenting a Play: Drama for an Audience
On occasion, students and teacher may wish to present a play to an audience. There are many possible
formats. A script can be selected in advance, or written or developed by the students. A play can be
memorized by student actors, or it can be presented as a staged reading, script-in-hand. Groups of
students might develop a drama in context into a collective creation for presentation to others. Whatever
the format, public performances should be infrequent and planned mainly for presentation to other
classes or to parents.
Choosing a Play
The best choices of plays to present are ones that have been written or developed by the students. This
provides students with motivation and a knowledge of the background and subject matter. It enables
them to portray believable characters, as the characters are of their own creation. When choosing a
student-written or professionally-written play to present, consider the following questions: Does the play
contain worthwhile and relevant material? Are the characters believable or interesting? Does the
dialogue offer enrichment? Is the play interesting to the students? Are there enough parts to involve the
whole group in some way?
If the play is a scripted play, the text should use language that creates character, provokes action, and
offers credibility. The play should provide opportunity for students to interpret its literary content and its
production requirements (e.g., set, costuming, lighting, props). It should provoke thought in both
performers and audience. The script should be reasonably short, requiring as little time as possible for
rehearsal. Long periods of time spent in rehearsing difficult scenes may not be productive.
Although students and the teacher may wish to prepare a full production, they should be aware that
simple staged readings also offer possibilities for presentation. A staged reading (script-in-hand) does
not preclude the use of costumes and lighting, and the reading can include movement and physical
interpretation, just as a full production does. Playwrights often present staged readings of works-in-
progress so they can see their play "on its feet" and assess audience response.
The Middle Level arts education curriculum guides contain extensive information on developing
collective creations. Teachers wishing to develop a play with students for public presentation might
consider the collective creation as a possible format. As does drama in context, the collective creation
presents an opportunity for collaboration with the drama teacher.
Director
The teacher generally becomes the director during rehearsal periods, although some students might be
capable of assuming that role with the teacher’s assistance. The director gives enough guidance to make
the actors feel secure, but provides enough freedom for individual interpretation.
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Stage or Playing Space
The director and students should decide what type of space best suits the purposes of their play: arena
(audience on four sides), thrust (audience on three sides), or the traditional proscenium (audience
viewing from one direction only). Students might study the history of these various playing spaces and
the effect they have on an audience’s experience with the play. Whatever the choice, the playing space
should be reasonably small with good acoustics. Often, an open space in a large classroom or the gym is
all that is required.
Stage Manager and Cast
A responsible student should be chosen as stage manager. The stage manager attends all the rehearsals
and keeps a record of all actions, cues, and decisions that are made regarding the presentation.
If the play is a scripted play, the actors could be chosen through auditions. It is essential that casting be
done sensitively and fairly, and that all students have the opportunity to participate in some way. If the
play is a collective creation, roles will probably be established naturally and collaboratively throughout
the process.
Set, Props, and Costumes
Set and costumes need not be elaborate. Some plays require no particular set or costumes. However, set
and costumes offer additional possibilities for visual presentation, creative interpretation, and
participation by students interested in design.
Responsible students should be chosen as managers of the set, costumes, and properties, if these are
required. Properties (props) are those items used by the actors during the presentation (e.g., a telephone,
a gym bag). These can be made or borrowed by the students and need not be elaborate or highly
realistic. Ideas can be suggested through the clever selection of items (e.g., a lace table cloth to suggest
wealth).
Costumes and set can be planned collaboratively, or students with a particular interest in design might
develop ideas through consultation with everyone involved in the presentation. Any necessary set pieces
should be constructed by the students. Costumes need not be realistic. They need only to suggest
necessary information (e.g., a shawl to suggest a particular time period).
Rehearsals
The cast must become thoroughly familiar with the play and characters through reading, discussion, or
improvisation. Questions such as the following may be considered: Could you describe the character you
are playing? What are the character's relationships to other people in the play? What are this character's
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aims, beliefs, dislikes? How does this character fit into the main events of the play?
A rehearsal schedule should be made. Frequent shorter rehearsals are most effective, so scenes, instead
of the whole play, should be rehearsed; complete run-throughs can occur closer to performance time.
If lines are to be memorized, they should be memorized early, because this frees the actors to
concentrate on the action of the play and on developing character. In the case of collective creations,
students might continue exploring and changing lines and episodes throughout the rehearsal process, as
they refine their presentation and clarify their intentions.
As rehearsals progress, the play should grow in unity and cohesiveness. The actors will develop a spirit
of co-operation and a sense of understanding. Two or three dress rehearsals should take place, and
should be planned from the beginning. By the time the play is presented, all the problems of cast and
crew should be solved. Also, rehearse the curtain call, if there is to be one.
Performance
The director needs to maintain an attitude of calm encouragement. Refrain from excessive criticism or
excessive praise. The actors' goal should be successful communication with their audience.
One performance is recommended. However, at times, students can learn a great deal by giving the
performance a second time.
Members of the class can serve as ushers for the audience, and can also hand out programs, if there are
any. Publicity should take the form of posters made by class members. Always remember, it is a school
play where educational and social values come before any grand theatrical displays.
After the Presentation
Debrief with students through discussion or written responses. These responses can be general
observations or specific to the role that the student played. Students, whether audience members or
presenters, can engage in various reflection activities such as journal writing, drawing, interviews, or
role plays.
Audio and Video Recording Activities
Most students are quite familiar with audio and video equipment. Throughout this curriculum are
suggestions for audio and video recording as a way to provide feedback to speakers and to let them
know how their presentations look and sound. Recordings are also a means of preserving classroom
oracy activities and presentations as models for other students or for assessment and reporting purposes.
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At times, groups or individuals may wish to pre-tape a presentation to be used in the classroom, rather
than simply recording live classroom presentations. For instance, a group of students might make up a
news broadcast for events happening in a story or they might create a talk show using story characters as
guests. Very often, such productions require that scripts be written, so this involves group collaboration
in writing activities before any of the recording takes place.
Interviews
An interview is a good way to gain information and provide the participants with practice in improving
speaking and listening skills. Results of interviews can be prepared for publication in reports or in the
school newspaper, thus supporting the writing component of the language arts program.
Students might interview people from the community who have firsthand knowledge regarding topics
being studied at school or they might interview visitors, fellow students, or teachers. It is important that
the interview has a definite purpose. For example, a student could arrange an interview with a police
officer to talk about "missing persons' files" if that student has been reading a novel about a mysterious
disappearance, or has been studying nonfictional accounts of lost children.
Before the Interview
Effective interviews are the result of careful planning. The teacher and students together should draw up
a checklist of preparations that must be made for interviewing. Some important steps to include are:
●
Think about the purpose of the interview and state it clearly.
●
Make arrangements for the time, place, and setting of the interview so they are convenient for
both parties. Confirm arrangements the day before the interview.
●
Become informed about the topic of the interview. Learn any special vocabulary needed to talk
about the topic. Try to become familiar with some current information on the topic.
●
Examine your own attitudes toward the interviewee and the topic you will be discussing.
●
Plan your opening remarks in advance. These should include the purpose of the interview and the
initial questions.
●
Plan how you will document the interview. If you wish to audio or video record the interview,
ask for permission ahead of time as some people prefer not to be recorded. To use audio or video
recorders, be sure equipment is booked and in working order.
During the Interview
Guidelines are necessary for students to establish the way in which interviews should be conducted.
Some suggestions include the following:
●
Use language that is appropriate to the setting, the subject, and other people present.
●
Be alert to nonverbal cues from the interviewees. If they seem offended or confused by what you
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say, adjust your language or restate the question.
●
Maintain a friendly interested attitude. Always be polite. Offer reassuring comments.
●
Make continual checks for understanding. Summarize especially long or complicated answers.
Ask follow-up questions.
●
Let the interviewee do most of the talking.
●
Use nonverbal cues to show interest and support (e.g., maintain eye contact, nod, smile, or lean
toward the speaker, as appropriate).
●
Conclude the interview by thanking the interviewee for participating.
After the Interview
The teacher should discuss the interview process with the interviewer and with the class (audio or video
recordings can be discussion starters).
If the interview has taken place away from the school, the student interviewer could complete a self-
assessment and report back to the teacher or class. If the teacher and students have been able to observe
the interview, a few students may be asked to fill in a peer-assessment checklist. An example of a rating
scale is shown on the following page.
Sample Interviewer Assessment Rating Scale
Informal Debate
Students who participate in debates have an opportunity to explore, listen, and enjoy learning. Debates
give students additional opportunities to hear their classmates' views and to express opinions regarding
topics that matter to them. They also help students make important decisions and become critical
listeners. The informal debate helps students to work together to understand common problems.
Informal debate has a number of advantages:
●
Debating reflects the learning process. Debate establishes extremes, allowing the viewers and
participants to see the areas in between more clearly.
●
Debating allows students to explore ideas and arguments in a non-threatening atmosphere,
because presentational guidelines are provided.
●
Debating is an effective method of acquiring knowledge, as arguments need to be supported by
relevant, accurate, and complete information.
●
Students who debate informally learn to recognize the elements of a good argument and to
develop further their abilities to speak confidently.
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Before an Informal Debate
Some guidelines include the following:
●
Teachers and students decide on a topic related to material being studied in English language arts.
Brainstorming is one way to generate ideas.
●
When a number of ideas have been discussed and a topic has been chosen, two groups of students
may be formed. Within each group, individual students or pairs might be responsible for certain
tasks (e.g., developing analogies or rebuttals). Students who watch the debate on one occasion
will have a chance to be the debaters next time.
●
Draw up a checklist of guidelines for preferred debating practice (e.g., a suggested time limit for
each speaker, the importance of listening carefully to the other side's arguments, the need for
close co-operation within the group).
●
Research and learn some basic types of arguments often used in debate. For example:
❍
The Straw Person Argument - the practice of supporting a weak viewpoint that is opposite
to your own for the purpose of revealing its weaknesses.
❍
Argument Using "Definition" - the practice of persuading an audience that your definition
of a particular term is the correct or accepted one, and then basing your argument on that
definition.
❍
Admission of Uncertainty - giving up "a little" where it will not harm your argument in
order to win a more conclusive point where it will benefit you the most.
❍
Clarifying through Analogy - describing a situation or event by comparing it to another
situation or event which is immediately relevant to your audience.
The goal of informal debate should be to achieve the fullest possible explanation of both sides of an
issue.
During an Informal Debate
Some guidelines for informal debate follow.
●
Students join their groups (composed of six or less people) and take 15-20 minutes to prepare
arguments.
●
They should choose presenters for each of the arguments. The presenters speak in turn, after each
member on the other side makes a point.
●
Students should be sure not to repeat arguments previously presented, and ensure that a recorder
is making a list of all points being made.
●
Debaters must remember to focus on the arguments, not the participants, as they listen to the
debate.
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●
Students from both sides continue the rounds of debate until no new arguments can be made.
●
When all arguments from both sides have been presented, a teacher-led discussion should take
place. Some of the suggested topics for discussion are as follows:
❍
Of what quality were the presented ideas?
❍
Which arguments seemed most convincing?
❍
What ideas were raised (in the group debate) that individuals may not have considered?
❍
Which ideas may have changed certain students' thinking?
It is not necessary, and in many cases not advisable, to declare a "winning" group for an informal debate.
However, if the teacher and students decide they will declare a winner, then the following way of
establishing a winner could be followed:
●
Every valid and original argument made by each group should receive a mark.
●
No marks are gained for repeating an argument.
●
The group with the greatest number of marks wins.
After the Informal Debate
Students may react to the debating activity in an individual manner. This might best be done in written
form, because much discussion will already have taken place. Students might:
●
compare what they learned during the debate to what they knew before
●
research a topic of interest that has arisen due to hearing the debate
●
comment on the advantages or disadvantages of the informal debate
●
write a letter to a teacher or friend explaining the concerns they have after listening to the debate.
Meetings
A meeting is a gathering of two or more people for the purpose of discussing common topics/problems
or resolving specific issues. Each person attending a meeting must accept responsibility as a speaker and
a listener. Students who plan to attend a meeting need to prepare for their activities before, during, and
after the meeting.
Before the Meeting
Before a meeting, students should:
●
Find out the specific purpose of the meeting. What is its objective? What do the people at the
meeting expect to accomplish? How can an individual contribute?
●
Make any preparations necessary for your part in the meeting. Do you need to bring any reports,
charts, or memos? Do you need to make copies of information for other attendees? Others will
depend on you to do your share.
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If you are chairing or leading the meeting, you might be expected to:
●
Contact attendees to confirm specifics (e.g., purpose, place, date, and time).
●
Schedule the meeting, book the place, tell participants the purpose of the meeting, and inform
them of time and meeting place.
●
Locate and co-ordinate materials and equipment. Make arrangements for projectors or screens,
duplicate handout materials, order extra pencils and note pads, and provide an agenda or list of
topics to be discussed at the meeting.
●
Develop a strategy or approach for your meeting. (Do you need to be persuasive or instructive, or
do you need to find a solution to a problem?)
●
Consider the backgrounds and feelings of attendees as well as ways to motivate and interest them
in the topic.
During the Meeting
During a meeting, it is important to consider the following:
●
Make sure that what you have to say contributes to the discussion. Think before you speak.
●
Be realistic. How likely is it that your ideas could be adopted?
●
Be honest yet tactful; consider other peoples' feelings.
●
Actively participate without dominating discussions.
●
Stay on topic.
The leader or chair of the meeting should motivate others to participate, yet be sure to cover the
meeting's agenda:
●
Use your problem-solving skills. Identify problems, offer options, analyze options, choose an
option as a solution, put the solution into practice, and evaluate the solution.
●
Delegate and assign tasks to others, thus taking advantage of the talents in a group.
●
Take notes throughout the meeting. You do not want to rely entirely on your memory. In
addition, you may appoint a recorder to make an official record of what took place (e.g., minutes
of the meeting).
After the Meeting
After the meeting, it is important to follow up on any responsibilities you have as a result of the meeting:
●
Did you have a specific task assigned to you?
●
Do you need to send information to other attendees or share copies of charts, reports, or articles?
●
Did you volunteer to find out names, addresses, rules, or regulations?
●
Did you read about something important to the topic which might interest the leader and
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attendees?
The chair or leader should:
●
Follow up on each assignment (e.g., telephone, write brief memos).
●
Confirm date, time, and location of next meeting, in writing.
●
Distribute an official recording of the meeting minutes to each attendee.
●
Report to anyone you need to who has the responsibility of monitoring your meetings (e.g.,
teacher, principal).
Co-operative Learning
Co-operative learning involves students in group collaboration in order to achieve a goal or to complete
a project. Although students do not necessarily work together at one table throughout the project,
participation by each group member is necessary to accomplish the task. Success and assessment are
based on the performance of the group, as well as on individual contributions and performance within
the group.
Co-operative learning experiences are particularly effective at the Middle Level, where students have an
innate desire to be accepted. Competitive, individual efforts are appropriate at times; however, co-
operative learning experiences have the advantage of helping students work together and support each
other.
Purposes of co-operative learning include the following:
●
to extend interpersonal skills of communication, leadership, and trust
●
to increase students' self-esteem
●
to encourage students to take some responsibility for their learning
●
to provide opportunities for students to clarify and refine understandings through group inquiry
and problem solving
●
to extend language and thinking abilities through group discussions, planning, and problem
solving
●
to develop important social skills such as attentive listening and respect for individual ideas and
opinions.
Some guidelines to consider prior to co-operative learning activities include:
●
Involve the students in determining group norms and behaviours. Post these in the classroom so
expectations are known and shared by all students.
●
Prior to beginning group inquiries and complex projects, involve students in partner and small
group activities such as writing partnerships, peer editing, paired reading, and group study or
review.
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●
Establish assessment criteria for group projects before students begin their tasks.
●
Groups should be heterogeneous with a mix of genders and cultural groups. Students may protest
groupings initially, but the teacher should emphasize that group experiences will be numerous
and groupings will vary throughout the year.
●
The group task must be structured in such a way that the participation of each member is
necessary to accomplish the task.
●
Each member must have a specific role. The roles may be assigned by the teacher at first but,
ideally, the group should determine necessary roles and assign responsibilities through
collaboration and consensus.
As students work through the project, the teacher should monitor student participation and progress, and
observe and discuss their efforts.
Possible group structures include:
Jigsaw Groupings
●
Divide the class into heterogeneous "home" groups.
●
Each group member is assigned a number.
●
Students move from home groups into "expert" groups with peers assigned the same number (e.
g., all students designated #2 will meet).
●
Each expert group is assigned a certain task or sub-topic. Students read, research, or complete
their task. They must determine how they will record and report their findings to their home
groups.
●
When tasks or sub-topics are completed, students return to their original home groups.
●
Each student shares what he or she has learned or done while in the expert group.
Small Group Inquiry
●
Students and the teacher identify an issue or topic for exploration prior to the inquiry.
●
As a class, brainstorm and categorize or cluster relevant ideas or sub-topics.
●
Students form groups by choosing sub-topics of interest to them.
●
As groups, students determine how the exploration will be conducted and who will focus on
specific areas. They should also outline goals and expectations or end results. (Teachers should
emphasize that goals or results should be planned but may change as the inquiry progresses.)
●
Each group carries out its plan. The teacher monitors progress, offering assistance if needed.
Students should resolve any conflicts or differences that arise by open discussions and consensus.
The teacher's role is one of facilitator and advisor. It is important for the teacher to:
●
structure small, mixed groups initially to avoid groups being formed strictly on the basis of
friendships or gender.
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●
give all students, throughout the year, opportunities to work in random groupings, teacher-
selected groups, student-chosen groupings, common-interest groups, and heterogeneous ability
groups.
●
emphasize team work and basic communication skills with students as prerequisites for
productive group activities. (Sincere, attentive listening to each other and believing that everyone
should have a say are crucial to co-operative learning.)
●
establish a sense of organization and direction by checking with each group's status or progress at
the beginning of the class.
●
identify one specific signal to get students' attention while they are working.
●
encourage students to be positive and supportive to all peers at all times.
●
give students or classes extra support, encouragement, and time to work constructively in group
settings, if necessary.
After co-operative learning activities, it is important to consider the following:
●
Group members should have the opportunity to evaluate the group process as well as the extent
of learning or goal achievement.
●
Students should evaluate their own and each other's performance and progress.
●
Conclude group projects with class discussions of co-operative and constructive behaviours and
attitudes. Periodically review group expectations. Students may recognize a need to change or
add to the list of expectations.
●
Presentations by groups should be evaluated by the teacher and by peers. Criteria for evaluation
must be clarified prior to the project.
●
Assessment of group work and plans for improving communication skills in future projects
should be shared by all group members. Such reflection on experience provides valuable insights
for students.
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