Social and Labour Market Integration of
Ethnic Minorities in Spain
By: Sara de la Rica
Unversity of the Basque Country, FEDEA, IZA
December, 2008
The author acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (
SEJ2006-10827/ECON) and from the Basque Government (IT/241-08)
1
1 - Introduction
Spain has been traditionally a country of emigrants. During the 1850-1953
period, approximately 3.5 million Spaniards left for the Americas from regions such as
Galicia, Asturias and the Canary Islands. Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and Cuba were
some of the most popular destinations of these emigrants. However, from the mid 1970s
onwards, Spain became the host country of foreign labourers from Northern Africa and
Latin-America. Out migration diminished during the international economic crisis of the
early seventies, whereas immigration grew at a steady pace. The transition from an
immigrant-sending to an immigrant-receiving country was the by product of a larger shift
in regional migration patterns. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mediterranean
countries, such as Spain, Portugal and Italy, became immigrant-receiving nations due to a
variety of factors, such as: (1) their geographical proximity to immigrant-sending regions,
e.g. Africa; (2) the barriers to immigration in traditionally immigrant-receiving nations
during the 1950s, 1960s, and part of the 1970s, as it was the case in Germany,
Switzerland and France; and (3) the improved economies of Mediterranean countries.
The largest immigration flow has taken place from the mid nineties onwards.
Figure 1 shows the changing composition of the immigrant stock from 1995 to 2004.
1
Although Europeans used to account for half of all immigrants in 1995, the stock of
immigrants from Latin American and Africa has increased at a faster rate after the year
2000, catching up with the stock of European immigrants by the year 2004.
In addition to ethnic minorities coming from immigration, another ethnic minority
group in Spain that deserves attention is the group of Romas. This is not an ethnic
1
Figure 1 refers to the stock of immigrants with residence permits in each of the plotted years.
2
minority group coming properly from immigration, as the others mentioned before, given
that they are present in Spain for over 600 years. Indeed, an estimated 500.000 - 800.000
Roma/Gitanos are settled throughout the country, with the largest communities in the
provinces of Andalucía (more than 40%). Roma/Gitanos are not even officially
recognized as an ethnic minority group, despite Romani requests for social and political
recognition. Thus, there is no legal protection of their identity, culture, language and
other minority rights.
In this chapter, I will try to describe the Roma labour market situation as an
additional ethnic minority group, although there are no reliable nation-wide statistics
about the situation of Romas in Spain. Most of the description of the situation of Romas
in Spain is taken from EUMAP (2002).
I will treat ethnic minorities coming from immigration and Romas as separate
groups given their distinctive nature and situation.
2. Statistical Overview
2.1. Demographic Characteristics of Immigrants
If we consider individuals from Europe as a non-migrant group, then it is fair to
say that the most important ethnic minorities in Spain coming from immigration are
Africans and Latin Americans, and to a lesser extent, immigrants from Asia.
The most recent and extensive database that can be used to analyze the ethnic
minorities in Spain is the micro-data from Census 2001 (5% sample). The 2001
Population Census was fielded by the Spanish Institute of Statistics during the last term
of 2001. Around 13 million households and 40 million individuals were interviewed.
3
The Census has the advantage of, in principle, interviewing all immigrants independent
of their legal status. Nonetheless, we are aware that an important fraction of
unauthorized immigrants may not fill in the questionnaire and, as such, this group is
likely to be under-represented in the Census. The Census gathers information on personal
and demographic characteristics (such as age, education, marital status, relationship to the
household head, or province) and job characteristics (such as work status, occupation,
and industry). In addition, for immigrants –defined as individuals reporting a foreign
nationality, the Census collects information on the number of years elapsed since entry
and on the country of origin. An important drawback regarding the Spanish Census Data
is that it does not provide individual information on wages. Any information on wages
must be gathered from a complementary Database, the "Earnings Structure Survey" ,
2002.
Table 1 displays some basic demographic characteristics of natives and
immigrants in Spain. Taking into account all individuals, the first thing to note is that by
2001 immigrants represented 4% of the population share in Spain
2
. Immigrants are on
average much younger than natives (the age difference varies depending on the country
of origin of immigrants). Except for Latinos, the incidence of males is higher for
immigrants than for natives. Likewise, the proportion of working aged individuals (16-65
years) is much higher among immigrants than among natives. Regarding the geographical
distribution, immigrants are mainly distributed in five Spanish regions: Madrid,
Catalonia, Valencia, Andalusia, and The Canary and Balear Islands. These regions attract
around 82% of immigrants, relative to 63% of natives. However, immigrants are
2
Given the high pace at which immigration is taking place in Spain, by 2006 the immigrant population
share has reached 8% of the total population. However, the latest available individual-level information is
that from 2001 Census Data.
4
unevenly distributed in these regions. Whereas African and Asian immigrants concentrate
primarily on Catalonia (30% of African and Asian live in Catalonia, relative to only 15%
of natives) , Latinos are heavily concentrated in Madrid (around 47% of latinos live in
Madrid, compared to 13% of natives).
[Insert Table 1]
2.2 Demographic Characteristics of Romas in Spain
Given that Romas entered in Spain more than 600 years ago, their incidence of
male/female population and other characteristics like age are very much like those of the
majority group. However, regarding geographical location, the largest Roma
communities are located in the provinces of Andalucia (more than 40 percent), Valencia
and Murcia, followed by major cities such as Madrid, Barcelona, Sevilla, Granada,
Valencia and Zaragoza.
2.3. Labour Market Outcomes of Natives and Immigrants
Table 2 displays educational attainment and labour market status of working aged
individuals in the sample. Regarding education, African and Asian immigrants appear to
have attained lower levels of education, whereas Latinos show similar educational
attainment than natives. With respect to Labour Market Status, the labour force
participation rate is around 10 percentage points higher for immigrants than for natives,
although the unemployment rate is also higher for the former (between two and 5
percentage points, depending on the place of origin of immigrants)
3
. African immigrants
3
The percentage of part-time versus full-time work has not been reported because the incidence of part-
time in Spain is on average very low (around 5%).
5
suffer the highest unemployment rate among immigrants (14.4%), and Asian the lowest
(11.3%).
[Insert Table 2]
Turning now to employed individuals, table 3 displays basic job characteristics of
natives and ethnic minorities in Spain. Regarding type of employment, it can be seen that
except for Asians, the percentage of immigrants that work as employers (with employees)
or as self-employed is much lower than the corresponding ones to natives. On the other
hand, the vast majority of immigrants work as salary workers. In addition, the incidence
of permanent contracts among natives is almost 20 percentage points higher than among
immigrants.
Regarding wages, the first thing to note is that given that the Census does not
report information on wages, this is taken from the 2002 Earnings Structure Survey
4
.
Looking at average wages, it can be seen that average hourly wages for immigrants are
about 30 % lower than that for natives.
In the third place, table 3 displays basic differences on industry and occupational
distribution of natives and immigrants in Spain, although there are also differences within
the immigrant groups. Whereas almost half of the employed natives work in either Trade
or Services, less than 20 % of immigrants work in these sectors. However, industry
concentration differs very much depending on place of origin. For instance, around 25%
of Africans work in Construction (compared to 16% of Latinos and only 11% of Asians),
4
This survey contains individual information on 169,520 full-time workers (117,161 men and 52,359
women) from 21,621 establishments (only establishments with 10 or more employees). In addition to
establishment level information, the survey collects individual level data on gross hourly wages for a
random sample of workers from each establishment. Nationality of workers is reported, so hourly wages for
our ethnic minorities (except for Asian) is reported. Nevertheless, given the sample restrictions, it is likely
that the sample of immigrant workers contained in this survey is not fully representative of the immigrants'
workers. As such, no better data on individual wages is available for Spain.
6
whereas Latinos are more concentrated in Domestic Services (21%, compared to 5% of
Africans and 12% of Asians). Finally, Asian workers are primarily concentrated in Hotels
(26%, compared with 9% of Africans and 13% of Latinos).
As with respect to differences in occupational distribution, there are also notable
differences between natives and immigrants. The vast majority of immigrants (85% of
Africans, 61% of Latinos and 44% of Asians) work in Manual Jobs, either qualified or
non-qualified. Differences among natives and immigrants are particularly huge at the two
extremes of the occupational distribution, i.e., professionals (much higher incidence
among natives, except for Asians), and non-qualified Manual Jobs, where the incidence
of immigrants is much higher than that of natives.
[Insert Table 3]
2.4. Labour Market Outcomes of Romas in Spain
Although there are not precise statistics of educational attainment and labour
market status of Romas in Spain, there is consensus that levels of school enrolment
among the Roma population have improved significantly in recent years. According to
sources from the FSGG (2002)
5
, as of 2001, the vast majority or Romani children (90%)
began school at the same age as their non-Roma classmates (enrolment of non-Roma
majority population is 100%). Moreover, studies show that differences between Romani
pupils' age and grade level tend to increase by the end of primary school. One important
issue about Romanis' school attendance is that absenteeism is still very high. Irregular
school attendance reaches 45% of Romas compared to 3.8% of non-Roma ethnicity.
5
FSGG states for Fundación Secretariado General Gitano.
7
However, in the very recent years, Romani families’ attitudes towards school appears to
have changed considerably, and there is an increasing number of Romani parents
monitoring their children's attendance and performance and participating in school-
relating activities. Finally, Romas are overrepresented in public schools.
Regarding labour market situation of Romas, many Romani families are engaged
in a combination of formal and informal employment; many are self-employed but are
not registered as such. Street selling jobs take up an extremely high proportion of
working age Roma Population (between 50 and 75 percent). Around 20% of them are
engaged in seasonal agricultural jobs.
3. Labor Market Barriers
Section 2 described raw differences between natives and ethnic minorities in
Spain regarding personal demographic, educational and labour market characteristics.
However, in order to be able to draw on any conclusion regarding possible labour market
barriers faced by ethnic minorities, we must be able to see the extent to which
disadvantages faced by the minority groups are due to their differences in productivity or
to other non-productive related issues.
As before, I will make a distinction between labour market barriers faced by
immigrants and those faced by Romas given their very distinctive nature.
8
3.1. Labour market barriers faced by immigrants
Labour market barriers may be the result of different barrier types: There may be
social barriers that may cause marginalization and exclusion in the labour market,
linguistic barriers that prevent immigrants from fully integrating in the host country's
labour force, or economic barriers that prevent workers to integrate adequately in the host
labour market. Identification of social and linguistic barriers and furthermore, the
assessment of the impact of these barriers on the performance of immigrants in the host
country's labour market requires the availability of large micro datasets containing
information on natives' individual attitudes regarding ethnic minorities, language fluency
and so no. To date, no such data exists for Spain, so it is not possible to analyze from an
empirical viewpoint the importance of these social and cultural barriers for the labour
performance of immigrants in Spain.
However, with respect to economic barriers it is possible to move forward.
In particular, availability of micro data allows us to isolate the individual characteristics
of natives and immigrants and see the extent to which identically observable natives and
immigrants face different opportunities in the labour market. Furthermore, it is possible
to assess whether these different opportunities change as immigrants lengthen their stay
in Spain. These different opportunities can be understood as labour market barriers.
Identification of differences in labour market performance between natives and their
"alike" immigrant counterparts, as well as the dynamics of these differences as
immigrants lengthen their stay in Spain may help us understand the labour market
integration problems that Spanish immigrants face.
9
Amuedo-Dorantes and De la Rica (2007) analyze the labour market integration of
recent Spanish Immigrants in Spain
6
. In particular, they examine in the first place
immigrants’ employment integration as captured by changes in the employment
probability differential between similar immigrants and natives as immigrants’ stay in
Spain lengthens
7
. Secondly, they look at the integration occupation-wise of employed
immigrants. They rank occupations on the basis of their average earnings according to
the 2002 Spanish Earnings Structure Survey and analyze immigrants’ occupational
assimilation as their residencies in Spain lengthen relative to similarly skilled natives.
The analysis is carried out separately by gender so as to uncover differences in the
economic adaptation of male and female immigrants. In addition, immigrants are
distinguished according to their place of origin. Several conclusions can be withdrawn
from their analysis. First, immigrant men and women appear significantly less likely to
be employed than similarly skilled natives. The employment gap varies by gender (from
15 percent for men to 4 percent for women) as well as by immigrants’ origin. In
particular, African immigrants are only 8 percentage points less likely to be employed
than comparable natives. Among women, recently arrived Latino women are statistically
more likely to be at work than alike natives. Differences in the employment assimilation
of various immigrant groups can be due to a variety of factors. Specifically, Africans
may primarily migrate to look for employment. They may also have lower reservation
wages owing to greater earnings differentials between Spain and their home countries or
enjoy a lesser degree of skill or language transferability than other immigrant groups.
6
Asian immigrants are not included as a separate group in this work due to its small sample size.
7
This issue has been treated, among others, by Bevelander and Nielsen (2000) in Sweden and Wheatley
Price (1999) and Clark and Lindley (2005) in the U.K
10
Second, there exists evidence of an occupational attainment gap between African
and Latino immigrants and their native counterparts. The data also seem to support the
notion of upward occupational mobility and assimilation on the part of Latino immigrants
as their Spanish residencies lengthen. However, they find no clear pattern of
occupational assimilation in the case of African immigrants, which could be linked to
skill transferability reasons, language proficiency, and/or labour market discrimination.
This study also examines differences in the occupational assimilation patterns of
immigrants depending on their educational attainment. They find that low educated male
immigrants with lesser human capital experience a slower occupational assimilation
process than their counterparts with a secondary education. However, this pattern is only
observed in the case of male immigrants, suggesting the existence of gender differences
in the educational and occupational attainment of immigrants and natives possibly
driving the different role played by education in explaining male and female immigrant
assimilation
8
.
3.2. Labour market barriers faced by Romas in Spain
Public opinion surveys show that Spaniards are tolerant of differences in
nationality, race or religion compared to other European Union countries. However, there
is a widely shared negative common perception of Roma. They are seen as a group that is
resistant to integration. In this context, barriers against the entry of Roma in the labour
market are quite significant. It is commonly believed that Romas "do not work", or even
"would steal from their employers". Employment offices report that many companies
8
For more details on labour market integration of immigrants in Spain, see Amuedo-Dorantes and De la
Rica (2007)
11
openly refuse to employ or even interview Romani applicants. As a rule, employment
discrimination is more visible in the practice of private companies, but is not limited to
the private sector. Indeed, NGOs have registered numerous cases of discrimination by
both private and public employers (for more details, see EUMAP (2002), p. 311)). This
practices are even more acute against Romani women.
4. Public Policy
4.1. Public Policies aimed at Immigrants' Integration in Spain
The main legislative acts existing in Spain regarding immigrants concern the
immigrant entry rights and work permits. Given the recent nature of immigration in
Spain, there are not many specific legislative initiatives aimed at eliminating labour
market discrimination and promoting labour market integration of immigrants. However,
we should mention some policy initiatives that the Government has recently developed so
as to help immigrants' integration in the Spanish Labour Market.
The first one was carried out by the Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs
and consists on the creation of a Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants . The
Forum was created in 2000 and its purpose was (and continues to be) to give service and
support to the integration of immigrants who reside legally in Spain. Its composition,
authority, responsibilities and operating regime are regulated in Royal Decree 367/2001,
of 4 April, and its constituent assembly was held on December 19, 2001.
The Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants has the following functions:
• Draft proposals and recommendations tending to promote the integration of
immigrants and refugees into Spanish society.
12
• Receive information on programs and activities carried out by the national, regional
and local governments in matters related to the social integration of immigrants.
• Collect and channel proposals formulated by social organizations that are active in the
realm of immigration, with an eye toward ensuring the best possible coexistence of
immigrants and their host society.
• Prepare an annual report on the tasks accomplished and on the status of immigrants’
and refugees’ social integration.
• Draft reports on the proposals, plans and programs that may affect immigrants’ social
integration as required by the competent national government bodies.
• Whatever other actions that may be considered necessary with regard to the
integration into Spanish society of legally resident foreign nationals, as well as any
other action that the provisions in force may assign to the Forum.
A second governmental initiative promoted to improve immigrants' integration in
Spain is the creation of a Permanent Immigration Observatory. The Permanent
Immigration Observatory is a collegial body that has the following assigned functions:
data collection, analysis, study and publication of information with migratory movements
in Spain. The Observatory is attached to the Ministry for Employment and Social Affairs
through the Secretary of State for Immigration and Emigration. Its legal composition is
stated in Royal Decree 345/2001, of April, which entrusts it with the following
responsibilities, among others:
13
• To act as a permanent body for the collection, analysis and exchange of information
on matters concerning aliens, immigration and asylum among national and regional
government agencies and local entities.
• Reception and analysis of the information supplied by public and private entities, as
well as by organizations and associations that are related with immigration.
• Compilation, promotion and diffusion of the information obtained, as well as printing,
publishing and distribution of studies, reports and information related to immigration.
• Preparation of studies and publications, both by the Observatory itself and by outside
sources, among which the annual “Alien Affairs Statistical Yearbook” stands out.
The Permanent Immigration Observatory functions in both plenary sessions and
through technical and scientific committees. Its President is the Secretary of State for
Immigration and Emigration.
To my knowledge, there is no evaluation of the achievements obtained from both
governmental initiatives regarding immigrants' integration.
14
4.2. Public Policies aimed at Romas' Integration in Spain
The idea of a national programme to improve the situation for Roma first
appeared at the beginning of the 1980s. In 1985, Parliament created an administrative
unit to oversee and provide funding for the implementation of development projects. It
was called the Rome Development Program (RDP). A variety of "employment
integration" schemes have received State and Regional funding through the RDP. This
include pre-employment training, career guidance, assistance and supervision to help
young Romas integrate into the labour market. The Ministry of Social Affairs have
financed various programmes to assist street sellers, which as stated before, gives
occupation to more than half of working age Romas.
An encouraging development is called "Acceder". This is an EU-supported
programme, which for the first time includes the Romani community as a special target
group for the operative programmes of the European Social Fund. "Acceder" branches
opened in each participating municipality function as a network of parallel employment
offices for Roma, prividing training, counselling and mediation services.
However, the RDP receives a variety of criticism from the Romani
community, mainly because Romas are not participating in designing, implementing or
evaluating the RDP at a national level.
15
5. Business Policy
a) Overall Perception of the Social Partners Towards ethnic minorities in Spain:
a.1) Perception towards immigrants:
The Spanish Employer Confederation (CEOE) is in favour of increasing the
quotas of incoming immigrants considerably, since the production system needs more
personnel - especially in catering, construction, and agriculture. At this stage, it is clear
by everybody that immigrant workers accept (they have no choice) wages and working
conditions that the Spanish workers do not accept, and suggest that matters would be
different if wages rose and jobs were more secure in many of the sectors that today suffer
from a shortage of workers.
However, at this point all social partners (employers and unions) agree that there
are two issues that must be undertaken with no delay: "regularise" the employment sector
and irregular immigration in the country, and to manage labour migration through social
dialogue. In this respect, the election of the new Spanish Government in March 2004 had
led to a strategic turnaround in immigration policy, establishing a link between
immigration and the labour market. A social dialogue has been set up and negotiations
initiated with the main social players (employers and workers); the dialogue focuses, in
part, on the measures that could be taken to improve the situation of irregular immigrants
in the country. In this way, the special process of regularising the situation of migrants
was initiated. The process has been a success and that all the proposed objectives have
been adequately met, with the "administrative regularisation" of around 600 000 people.
16
The social dialogue promoted by the Spanish government has also resulted in the
creation of a permanent Forum – the Comisión Laboral Tripartita (Tripartite Labour
Committee) – made up of workers and employers and also dealing with immigration
policy. The general objective of this committee is to boost legal immigration, focusing on
the need to manage migratory flows (stepping up recruitment at place of origin), to
pursue and penalise bad practices, and to have a flexible system enabling employers to
act swiftly. Social dialogue seems to be accepted as a good practice, and essential when
tackling immigration; it is also needed in order to ensure that the rights acquired thus far
are maintained.
a.2) Perception towards Romas:
Sociological research has suggested that Roma are the ethnic group most
consistently rejected not only by employers, but also by teachers, pupils and society in
general. Moreover, studies carried by the Romani Union indicate that media coverage of
Roma and Romani issues is predominantly negative.
In the last decade, there have been some governmental initiatives to cooperate
with local press and television to improve the image of Romas in the mass media.
However, these initiatives have proven to be of a symbolic rather than practical value.
b) Companies and practices with ethnic minorities
I do not know of any company that has either implemented desirable policies for
immigrants (or Romas) or that has not done so on purpose. My view about this is that
immigration is still a very recent phenomenon in Spain and that in general companies are
far from thinking on implementing these kind of measures. Spain is still some steps
17
behind this stage compared with other EU countries, where immigration has been an
issue for more than one generation. To date, companies are basically concerned with
regularization of illegal immigrants and with reaching agreements with immigrants
countries so as recruitment is done at place of origin. When these premises are already
solved, there may be room for companies to think on good practices for ethnic minorities.
6. Policy Implications
6.1. Policy Implications directed to economic integration of Immigrants in Spain
Although section 4 reveals that public initiatives regarding economic integration
of Immigrants in Spain have been quite scarce, evidence from Amuedo-Dorantes and De
la Rica (2007) reveals that Latinos and Asian Immigrants assimilate quite quickly in
terms of employment and, although to a lesser extent, in terms of occupational upgrading.
However, the analysis also reveals that there is more need to play close attention to
immigrant groups displaying greater assimilation difficulties, as is the case with Africans,
in order to prevent marginalization and subsequent social tensions (e.g. recent immigrant
riots in France). The offering of training programs that allow these immigrants to more
easily transfer their human capital and acquire Spanish specific skills sought by
employers in addition to language skills could prove useful in facilitating their
adaptation.
6.2. Policy Implications directed to economic integration of Romas in Spain
The former sections have described the precarious situation of Romas in Spain, as
well as the scarcity of well designed policy measures directed to improve their social and
18
economic integration. A number of policy recommendations can be done so as to
improve their situation:
- The first of all is to pass the necessary legislation to fully recognize Roma as an ethnic
minority in Spain.
- Take necessary legislative and policy measures to prevent and reverse segregation and
ghettoisation of schools. Design initiatives that apply the concept of intercultural
education, giving due consideration to the incorporation of positive aspects of Romani
culture.
- Establish independent specialised bodies capable of effectively implementing anti-
discrimination legislation at work.
- Replace the Roma Development Programme with a new strategy at national level for
the improvement of the labour situation of Roma, ensuring full participation of Romas in
it.
My last remark regarding Romas is that in spite of many political measures that
can (and must) be undertaken, inasmuch as the general attitude towards Romas do not
change in Spain, there is little room for the full social and economic integration of this
ethnic minority group. To overcome a change in this general attitude, both Romas and the
rest of the society must make a very important effort towards accepting and
understanding the other.
19
References:
Amuedo-Dorantes and De la Rica (2007), "Labour Market Assimilation of Recent
Immigrants in Spain", forthcoming in British Journal of Industrial Relations.
Bevelander, P. and HS Nielsen. (2001). “Declining employment success of immigrant
males in Sweden: Observed or Unobserved characteristics?”, Journal of
Population
Economics, 14 (3) , pp: 455-472.
Clark, K. and J. Lindley (2005), “Immigrant Labour Market Assimilation and Arrival
Effects: Evidence from the Labour Force Survey”, Sheffield Economic Research
Paper Series, No. 2005004, University of Sheffield.
EUMAP (2002). "The Situation of Roma in Spain", available at
(http://www.eumap.org/reports/2002/eu/international/sections/spain/2002_m_spai
n.pdf).
FSGG (2002), "Evaluation of Educational Normalisation of Romani Children", Madrid,
2002, p. 190
Wheatly Price S. (1999). “The employment adjustment of male immigrants in England”,
Journal of Population Economics, 14(1), pp: 193-220
20
Figure 1
Evolution of Foreign Residents in Spain by Place of Origin, 1995-2004
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2002
2003
2004
Years
Thous
ands
European
Latin-American
African
Source: Anuario de Extranjería and Permanent Observatory of Immigration (Immigrants with
Residence Permits).
21
Table 1
Average Basic Demographic Characteristics of Natives
and Ethnic Minorities in Spain
All
Natives
African Latinos
Asian
Share of the
Population
100 96.2
0.81
1.53
0.17
Age
39.4 39.7 27.8
29.6
31.6
Proportion
Female
51 51
34.1
55.7
43.3
Proportion
Workingage
68.4 68.0
80.12
81.7
83.52
Regional
Distribution
(%)
Madrid
13.27
12.9
16.02
47.2
26.2
Catalonia
15.5 15.4 30.8
17.9
32.7
Valencia 9.01
8.9
7.21
9.8
7.5
Andalusia 18.01
18.2
12.9
6.13
8.7
Balear and
Canary Islands
6.2 6.0 6.4
8.6
12.4
N.
observations
2.039.255
0.961.634
16.515 31.137 3.520
Source: 2001 Census (Spanish Institute of Statistics)
Notes: All Individuals included
22
Table 2
Average Individual Characteristics of Natives and
Ethnic Minorities in Spain: Education and Labour Market Status
All
Natives
African Latinos
Asian
Age
38.4 38.6 31.9
32.7
34.5
Education (%)
Less primary
8.6
8.4
32.6
6.8
13.9
Primary 20.0
20.12
26.5
17.3
19.3
Secondary 55.3
55.4
34.9
60.5
51.5
University 15.7
15.8
4.9
14.5
14.0
Labour Market
Status
Labour Force
Participation
67.6 67.3 77.0
77.9
75.8
Unemployed
9.6 9.5
14.4
13.6
11.3
N.
observations
1.395.893
1.331.929
13.233 25.250 2.940
Source: 2001 Census (Spanish Institute of Statistics)
Notes: Working aged individuals (16-65) included.
23
Table 3
Job Characteristics of Natives and Ethnic Minorities in Spain:
Type of Employment, Industry and Occupational Distribution
All
Natives
African
Latinos
Asian
Type of
Employment (%)
Employer
6.47 6.57 2.41 2.75 9.20
Self-Employed
10.33 10.47 6.28 5.71 11.04
Salary Worker
82.26 82.02 90.58 90.66 79.01
Permanent
Contract
54.7 55.6 27.5 38.01
38.61
Average monthly
wages (gross)
1669.7
(1305.9)
1677.7
(1305.9)
1088.1
(484.7)
1127.5
(965.2)
---
Average hourly
wages (gross)
9.78
(7.83)
9.83
(7.76)
6.23
(2.83)
6.46
(5.55)
---
Industry
Distribution (%)
Agriculture 6.32
6.07
24.09
7.96
4.44
Construction 11.76
11.47
24.88
16.05
10.93
Trade 15.46
15.66
11.89
9.82
17.79
Hotels 6.22
5.89
8.83
13.31
25.58
Services 32.97
33.72
8.58
17.52
13.60
Domestic
Services
2.26 1.76 5.11 20.69
11.98
Occupational
Distribution (%)
Professional 8.7
8.84
2.63
3.43
10.04
Technical
23.04 23.55 3.88 11.07 9.99
Clerical Jobs
24.48
24.60
14.93
23.94
33.3
Qualified
Manual Jobs
31.44 31.68 35.36 23.58 20.51
Non-Qualified
Manual Jobs
11.54 10.57 39.90 36.64 23.55
N. observations
818.084
729.960
8.317
16.470
1.911
Source: 2001 Census (Spanish Institute of Statistics) ; Information on wages is taken
from the 2002 Spanish Earnings Structure Survey . Information on Asian wages is
not available.
Notes: Employed individuals included.