Particularity and Universality in Revelation

Seyed Amir Akrami

The specific question I am going to deal with here is whether Islam, as a particular

religion arising in the seventh century Arabia with all its particular doctrines, ethics

laws, rituals and other various aspects, is conceived by its revelatory source, namely

the Quran, to be applicable and binding to all humanity or it is only thought to be the

necessary way of attaining salvation and truth for its adherents. In other words, the

question is whether the Quran regards Islam as the only religion which provides

universal access to ultimate happiness or it recognises other particular religions as

salvific and hence religiously and spiritually instrumental for their followers.

The view I advocate here is that the Quran makes a clear distinction between, on the

one hand, a universal, minimal and essential core set of beliefs, attitudes and

behaviours which it calls islam, and on the other, the historical manifestations of those

in various times and places in the form of particular religions such as Judaism,

Christianity and Islam. In Quranic terminology we can talk about this distinction in

terms of the difference between din, which refers to the essential and universal set of

beliefs and practices, and shar’, sher’ah and menhaj, referring to the particular

historical and institutionalised religions. (al-Mizan, 5,358) The universality lies in

those fundamental attitudes and views, islam, rather than in an historical

manifestation of it, namely Islam.

The first important point striking any reader of the Quran in the context of religious

diversity is its recurrent and overriding emphasis on a universal and long chain of

revelation and prophecy in which Muhammad is only one member. This general

stream of revelation, which can be identified with islam as briefly explained above

and elaborated on later on, includes all the prophets from Adam to Muhammad ‘some

We have mentioned to you and some We have not’ (40:78). Similar verses can be

found in (4:164), (3:144), (4:163-165), (40:78), (16:36), (10:47), (13:7) In fact there

was never a people without a warner (35:24). This central idea is highlighted in

(42:13) where the Quran says:

In matters of faith, He has laid down for you [people] the same commandment
that He gave Noah, which We have revealed to you [Muhammad] and which

We enjoined on Abraham and Moses and Jesus: ‘Uphold the faith and do not
divide into fractions within it’ – what you [Prophet] call upon the idolaters to do
is hard for them; God chooses whoever He pleases for Himself and guides
towards Himself those who turn to Him.

This religion or faith is called islam by the Quran and hence it explicitly regards

Abraham, Jacob, Joseph and Jesus’ disciples as Muslim in (2:128, 132), (12:101) and

(3:52), (5:111) respectively. The fact that the Quran incorporates narratives about the

lives of prophets before Muhammad significantly indicates its emphasis on the

oneness of religion and unity of their essential message, which took various historical

forms relative to their differing situations and circumstances.

The Quran also stresses that Muhammad ‘is not told anything that were not told to the

previous prophets ‘

[

Should remember that] you [Prophet] are not told anything that

the previous messengers were not told: your Lord is a Lord of forgiveness, but also of

painful punishment’ (41:43) or in (46:9)

‘

Say, ‘I am not the first of God’s messengers.

I do not know what will be done with me or you; I only follow what is revealed to me;

I only warn plainly.’ In this context Muslims are warned not to think of themselves as

the privileged or distinguished people of God and if they turn back (from the path of

islam) ‘He will substitute other people for you if you turn away, and they will not be

like you’

(47:38).

Throughout the Quran there is a special and significant emphasis on this general

revelatory phenomenon and Muslim are told to give verbal recognition to it.

So [you believers], say, ‘We believe in God and in what was sent down to us
and what was sent down to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and
what was given to Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets by their Lord. We make no
distinction between any of them, and we devote ourselves to Him

(2/136). (also

2:285,3:84).

This universal revelatory phenomenon, which is called islam by the Quran as I am

going to argue, is usually identified with the faith of Abraham as we saw earlier in

(2:127-132).

My view is that the general perspective that one can draw from the Quran is that this

universal phenomenon of revelation has given rise to different historical forms of

religiosity and as long as the adherents of these religions are practically faithful to the

essential elements of that Abrahamic heritage their salvation is guaranteed. Therefore,

if the Quran sometimes denounces the Christians and the Jews it must be interpreted

as referring to some particular groups who did not act according to the main teachings

of these religions rather than these traditions and their followers in their totality. A

glance at those Quranic verses in which adherents of these religions are either praised

or criticised can clearly substantiate the view I am advocating here. This will be done

with particular attention to the commentary of the Quran by Muhammad Husayn

Tabatabai (1903-1982), a contemporary Iranian Muslim exegete who wrote a large

twenty volume commentary on the Quran in Arabic. He was also a great scholar of

Islamic philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence.

Among the positive allusions to the Christians we can begin by (3:75-76) where the

Quran says:

There are people of the Book who, if you [Prophet] entrust them with a heap of
gold, will return it to you intact, but there are others of them who, if you entrust
them with a single dinar, will not return it to you unless you keep standing over
them, because they say, ‘We are under no obligation towards the gentiles.’ –
they tell a lie against God and they know it. * No indeed! God loves those who
keep their pledges and are mindful of Him.

What is important here is the emphasis on the noble moral attitude of trustworthiness

which makes some Christians praiseworthy and qualified as Muttaqi (mindful of God,

God-fearing). Tabatabai’s commentary here is that the purport of this verse is that the

nobility given by God is not something cheap that can be achieved easily so that

anyone with any alleged relationship with God or ascription to any race can claim it.

It is rather obtained through loyalty to God and His covenant and mindfulness of Him.

(al-Mizan, 3:304)

A similar positive reference can be found in (3:113-115) where the Quran says:

But they are not all alike. There are some among the People of the Book who
are upright, who recite God’s revelations during the night, who bow down in
worship. * Who believe in God and the Last Day, who order what is right and
forbid what is wrong, who are quick to do good deeds. These people are among

the righteous * and they will not be denied [the reward] for whatever good
deeds they do: God knows exactly who is conscious of Him.

Tabatabai’s commentary is that in this verse the most important characteristic of

righteousness which are belief in God and the Last Day, commanding what is right

and forbidding what is wrong and competing in good acts are attributed to them and

hence they are on the straight path. Although Tabatabai mentions at the end that it is

said by previous commentators that those who are praised in this verse are a specific

group (Abdullah ibn Salaam and his companions) he does not approve or disapprove

it leaving the verse open, I think, to a more inclusive interpretation.(al-Mizan, 3:440)

Also in (3:199) we read:

Some of the People of the Book believe in God, in what has been sent down to
you and in what was sent down to them: humbling themselves to them, they
would never sell God’s revelation for a small price. These people will have their
rewards with their Lord: God is swift in reckoning.

Very clearly again qualities such as belief in God and revelations, humility to God

and steadfastness are ascribed to a group of the People of the Book. Tabatabai’s

understanding of the text is that they share good reward with the believers, usually

taken to refer to Muslims. He then proceeds to reemphasise that the ultimate

happiness in the hereafter is not the exclusive preserve of any particular group so that

the people of the Book are precluded from it, but rather the criterion is belief in God

and His messengers and therefore if they meet that they are on an equal footing with

Muslims.(al-Mizan, 4:91)

Another verse in this context is (57:27) where the Quran says:

We sent other messengers to follow in their footsteps. After those We sent
Jesus, son of Mary: We gave him the Gospel and put compassion and mercy
into the hearts of his followers. But monasticism was something they invented –
We did not ordain it for them, only that they should seek God’s pleasure – and
even so, they did not observe it properly. So We gave a reward to those of them
who believed, but many of them broke the rules.

Once again here positive moral and spiritual qualities are attributed to some followers

of Jesus, particularly compassion, mercy and monasticism, though there is also a

critical reference to an excess in their observation of the monastic life. But the

important point is that at the end faith or belief, central to islam, is ascribed to them.

Tabatabai’s commentary here is general and brief and mostly concentrates on what

monasticism means but he closes his discussion by stating that ‘among them are

believers rewarded for their faith but many of them are transgressors.’ (al-Mizan,

19:173)

Another set of verses in which Christians are praised are (5:82-85):

You [Prophet] are sure to find that the most hostile to the believers are the Jews
and those who associate other deities with God; you are sure to find that the
closest to affection towards the believers are those who say, ‘We are
Christians,’ for there are among them people devoted to learning and ascetics.
These people are not given to arrogance, * and when they listen to what has
been sent down to the Messenger, you will see their eyes overflowing with tears
because they recognize the truth [in it]. They say, ‘Our Lord we believe so
count us amongst the witnesses. * Why should we not believe in God and in the
truth that has come down to us when we long for our Lord to include us in the
company of the righteous?’* For saying this, God has rewarded them with
Gardens graced with flowing streams, and there they will stay: that is the reward
of those who do good.

The main reasons for this positive description can be summed up by reference to the

presence of priests, presence of monks, their humility and recognition of the truth

which make them eligible to be regarded as believers, righteous and worthy of God’s

reward and paradise. Tabatabai here just paraphrases these qualities and emphasises

that among the Christians are learned men who remind their community of truth by

word and there are ascetics who remind them of the greatness of their Lord by deed

and also their humble acceptance of the truth.(al-Mizan, 6:81-82)

Also in (28:52-55) we read:

Those to whom We gave the Scripture before believe in it,* and, when it is
recited to them, say, ‘We believe in it, it is the truth from our Lord. Before it
came we had already devoted ourselves to Him.’ * They will be given their
rewards twice over because they are steadfast, repel evil with good, give to
others out of what We have provided for them, * and turn away whenever they
here frivolous talk, saying, ‘We have our deeds and you have yours. Peace be
with you! We do not seek the company of ignorant people.’

Here islam, averting evil with good, charity and avoidance of vain talk are attributed

to the People of the Book and a double reward is promised. In (5:66) also the Quran

talks about a group among the People of the Book who are the balanced community

as distinct from many who are evildoers.

22:40 explicitly underlines the holiness of the places of worship and rites of the

adherents of other religious traditions; it is not only in mosques where the name of

Allah is commemorated but in monasteries, synagogues and churches as well.

Furthermore, 5:44 and 47 clearly state that in the Torah there is guidance and light

and Christians must judge by their book. Then after talking about the Quran, 5:48

concludes by ‘we have assigned a law and a path to each of you. If God had so willed,

He would have made you one community, but He wanted to test you through that

which He has given you, so race to do good: you will return to God and He will make

clear to you the matters you differed about.’

In a more direct and also inclusive manner verse 2:62 talks about religious diversity:

The [Muslim] believers, the Jews, the Christians, and the Sabians – all those
who believe in God and the Last Day and do good – will have their rewards
with their Lord. No fear for them, nor will they grieve.

Commentators have extensively attempted to clarify the meaning of the verse and

particularly to whom it refers (who are ‘the believers’ and the ‘Sabaeans’?). But apart

from these technical exegetical issues, it is clear that the Quran is according validity

to other religions and emphasising that more important than religious affiliations are

the main criteria of belief in God and the Last Day and righteousness. However,

despite its clarity, the verse has been traditionally thought to be abrogated by another

verse 3:85 saying

‘

If anyone seeks a religion other than islam: complete devotion to

God, it will not be accepted by Him: he will be one of the losers in the Hereafter.

’

Obviously everything hinges upon the way in which islam is understood in this verse.

If what is meant by it is Islam then other religions were only valid before the

emergence of this particular tradition and hence the scope of its inclusiveness is

utterly limited. But if islam in the verse is taken to refer to islam, the minimal and

essential attitude and view briefly described above, then validity of other religions

after the advent of Islam can be upheld.

Fortunately (from my point of view!) many of both traditional and contemporary

exegetes have thought that the alleged abrogation is not valid since, firstly, abrogation

does not apply to those God’s saying which include a promise of reward and,

secondly, abrogation pertains to legal ordinances which are sometimes subject to

change due to changing conditions (Majma al-Bayan, 1:244, Tibyan, 1:284 285).

Interestingly enough Tabatabai does not discuss the issue of abrogation at all and

prefers to emphasise again that ‘the criterion and reason for moral nobility and

ultimate felicity is a genuine faith in God and the Last Day and good deeds... None of

these names (religious affiliations and labels) benefit their bearers and no quality

leads to salvation except adherence to humble veneration of God (ubudiyyah).’

Moreover, the validity of other religious traditions acknowledged in 2:62 is explicitly

confirmed by 5:69 which says the exact same thing with some minute differences.

Therefore, one can argue that if 2:62 was abrogated by 3:85 it is reinstated by 5:69.

Another way in which some commentators have sought to circumscribe the

application of the verse is to ascribe the occasion of the revelation of the verse to a

specific group. However, this can be refuted by the argument that generally the

occasion of revelation sheds light on the conditions under which the verse was

revealed and it does not limit its application only to the specific incident, otherwise

many of the Quranic teachings are not to be regarded as relevant anymore. Ultimately,

the verse cannot be regarded abrogated as the islam in 3:85 can be shown to refer to

islam rather than Islam as I shall argue presently.

There are two verses in which the word islam appears that can be used in an argument

to delimit the applicability of the inclusive or even pluralist verses mentioned above.

One is 3:85 referred to earlier and the other is 3:19. The latter says:’ True religion, in

God’s eyes, is islam, those who were given the Scripture disagreed out of rivalry, only

after they had been given knowledge- if anyone denies God’s revelation, God is swift

to take account.’ Taking a look at the verses before and after this verse makes it

vividly clear that the islam mentioned in this verse clearly refers to the general belief

in and submission and devotion to one God which is the central element of islam

rather than Islam. Of particular significance here is the following verse (3/20) saying:

‘If they argue with you [Prophet], say, ‘I have devoted myself to God alone and
so have my followers.’ Ask those who were given the Scripture, as well as those
without one, ‘Do you too devote yourselves to Him alone?’ If they do, they will
be guided, but if they turn away, your only duty is to convey the message. God
is aware of His servants.’

The other verse, namely 3:85 is also worth considering in this connection. The

previous verses give the appropriate context within which it can be understood. 3/83

and 84 say:

Do you seek anything other than submission to God? Everyone in the heavens
and earth submits to Him, willingly or unwillingly; they will all be returned to
him.* Say [Mohammad], ‘We [Muslims] believe in God and in what has been
sent to us and or Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes. We believe in
what has been given to Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets by their Lord. We do
not make a distinction between any of the [prophets]. It is to Him that we devote
ourselves.

83 talks about the submission of everything to God (ontological or takwini

submission) and 84 about the devotion of all prophets to Him (religious or tashri’i

submission) leading to 85 talking about general devotion or submission which is

essential for salvation according to the concluding part of this last verse. Therefore, I

think the context very clearly shows what is meant by islam in these verses.

In some interesting verses the Quran denounces the religious exclusivism of some

groups among the Jews and Christian of the time of revelation. Referring to a group

among the Jews 62/6 says that they regard themselves as ‘friends of Allah to the

exclusion of others’. More directly 2/111-113 reject their exclusivism as vain desires

(amanii):

They also say, ‘No one will enter Paradise unless he is a Jew or a Christian.’
This is their own wishful thinking. [Prophet], say, ‘Produce your evidence if
you are telling the truth.’ * In fact, any who direct themselves wholly to God
and do good will have their reward with their Lord: no fear for them, nor will
they grieve.* The Jews say, ‘The Christians have no ground whatsoever to stand
on,’ and the Christians say ‘The Jews have no ground whatsoever to stand on,’
though they both read the Scripture, those who have no knowledge say the

same; God will judge between them on the day of resurrection concerning their
differences.

The interesting point here is the use of a cognate word with islam (aslama). The

emphasis is again clearly on the devotion to God and good deeds as the main

constituents of a guaranteed and safe future. To forestall Muslims from thinking that

they may be exempt from the admonition mentioned in response to the exclusivism of

the Jews, the Quran is quick to say 4:122-125:

But we shall admit those who believe and do good deed into Gardens graced
with flowing streams, there to remain forever – a true promise from God. Who
speaks more truly than God? It will not be according to your hopes or those of
the People of the Book: anyone who does wrong will be requited for it and will
find no one to protect and help him against God; * anyone, male or female who
does good deeds and is a believer will enter paradise and will not be wronged by
as much as the dip in a date stone. * Who could be better in religion than those
who direct themselves wholly to God, do good, and follow the religion of
Abraham, who was true in faith? God took Abraham as a friend.

Again here islam as devotion and good deeds, characteristic of Abraham, is

underlined. The same view is also presented in 3:67 and 2:135.

Beyond the rejection of exclusivism of any religious tradition there seems to be a

more profound pluralistic approach to religious diversity in the Quran. In this

category of verses one can find an approval of the plurality of religions and even

strong indications to think of it as part of God’s plan or providence. In 2:148 we read:

‘Each community has its own direction to which it returns: race to do good deeds and

wherever you are, God will bring you together. God has power to do everything.’

Already we saw at the end of 5:48 that ‘We have assigned a law and a path to each of

you. If God has so willed, He would have made you one community.’ The same idea

is emphasised in 16:93, 22:34, 22:67 and 42:8-9. In these verses a particular religious

way of life (mansak, minhaj or shar’) is assigned to each community which is valid

and efficacious as long as the main elements of salvation captured by the word islam

is present in it. Also in this context 11:118 is of special importance where the Quran

talks about an irrevocable diversity among people:

If your Lord had pleased, He would have made all people a single community,
but they continue to have their differences.

Although we have already talked about the main characteristics of islam, it seems

appropriate to further elaborate on them here. Many verses can help clarify what islam

means more concretely in terms of necessary elements for salvation but one particular

verse is immensely important as it explains what righteousness, frequently referred to

above, means:

Goodness does not consist in turning your face towards East or West. The truly

good are those who believe in God and the Last Day, in the angels, the
Scripture, and the prophets; who give away some of their wealth, however much
they cherish it, to their relatives, to orphans, the needy, travellers and beggars,
and to liberate those in bondage; those who keep up the prayer and pay the
prescribed alms; who keep pledges whenever they make them; who are steadfast
in misfortune, adversity, and times of danger. These are the ones who are true,
and it is they who are aware of God

(

2:177).

The verse clearly downplays the ultimate role of some contingent religious rites and

highlights specific practical attitudes which revolve around unselfishness,

compassion, patience and God- fearingness. As usual in the Quran, belief and action

are interconnected and orthodoxy and orthopraxis are related. This is expressed

perhaps most vividly in surah 107.

The majority of Muslim commentators, however, have not accepted the view

advocated above and tried in various ways, some of which discussed earlier, to avoid

embracing a pluralistic position on religious diversity. One important way of doing so

has been to regard other religions only valid and legitimate before the coming of

Islam. It seems to me really strange and requires some unacceptable stretch of the

obvious meaning of so many Quranic verses that can be simply and straightforwardly

interpreted pluralistically. One relevant question is if the approbation and praise that

the Christians and the Jews received by so many verses of the Quran was due to their

conversion to Islam and acceptance of it as the final revelation then why they were

still called the People of the Book by the Quran. Such an interpretation seems to fly in

the face of a straightforward and obvious meaning of the text.

Consequently, some verses that may imply a different picture from the one depicted

above need to be interpreted in the light of these pluralistic verses. One may, for

example, draw upon 3:110 which says: ‘you are the best community singled out for

people’ but the context clearly shows that this superiority is not related to some

teachings or attitudes essentially absent in other traditions as the Quran immediately

connects it to the moral quality of ordering what is right and forbidding what is

wrong. These were among the essential qualities of islam discussed above and,

therefore, if any other religious community observes them they can also be superior.

As we saw earlier, in fact this was ascribed to some groups among the People of the

Book in 3:114. Conversely, if Muslims do not practice it they will become

automatically bereft of that superiority.

Another verse that can be used to endorse a non-pluralist view in the Quran is 6:19

where the Quran says: ‘This Quran was revealed for me to warn you and everyone it

reaches.’ This may be interpreted as implying a universal validity of Islam to the

exclusion of other religions. However, in response, one can refer to 42:7 where the

Quran also says: ‘So we have revealed an Arabic Quran to you, in order that you may

warn the capital city and all who live nearby’ to counterbalance the alleged

universality of 6:19. Furthermore, at least another valid possibility is to attribute the

universality of the message of the prophet to its central aspects, namely islam, rather

than the totality of Islam with all its specificities. The same thing can be said about

verses such as 81:27 in which the Quran describes itself as ‘a message for all people’

or 21:107 where the prophet is called a ‘mercy to all people’ In the same manner,

verses such as 5:57 in which Muslims are told not to take the Jews and Christians as

allies can be interpreted as a contingent and historical situation with respect to a

particular group of them who were ‘wrongdoers’ (zalimin) according to a hint at the

end of this verse and hence not applicable to all of them.

In conclusion, I think a more comprehensive approach to the Quran can substantiate

the view that the text makes a distinction between, on the one hand, some essential

and minimal teachings and a set of moral and spiritual attitudes and values closely

linked to them, which can be called islam, and, on the other, the historical

manifestations or expressions of those essential components of salvation in the

various forms of human religiosity with all their particularities such as Judaism,

Christianity and Islam. The universality is accorded to islam rather than to the various

historical expressions. Therefore, I propose this as a conclusion that according to the

Quran islam is universal whereas Islam is particular and there is no logical

contradiction here.