Erin Edwards
1st May, 2013
Arch 330
Lane
Human Sacrifice in Anemospilia
Human sacrifice was not a taboo practice in the ancient world; there was even evidence of
human sacrificial practices in certain Phoenician and Bedouin groups[1]. Many ancient Greek myths and
historians dealt with young men and women being sacrificed to appease the gods during times of war,
natural disaster, or certain festivals. Ancient historians, such as Herodotus and Euripides, had written of
historical human sacrificial events that took place before their time. Whether the events were true or
false, “it is clear that new stories of human sacrifice continued to be fashioned upon earlier models,” and
therefore, historical events and myths often times had very similar narratives[2]. At Knossos on Crete
there is an example of human sacrifice in the Room of Children’s Bones during LMIB (1450 BCE),
and Peter Warren directed excavation from 197981[3]. The house had burned and collapsed, but
underneath the plastered floor were over three hundred bones of four healthy children, ranging from
eight to twelve years old. By the time Yannis Sakellarkis and Efi SapounaSakellaraki excavated
Anemospilia in Archanes, south of Knossos, the sacrificial house had been reported and archaeological
evidence suggested that the Sakellarkis’ had uncovered another example of human sacrifice. The
ephemeral sanctuary of Anemospilia was built in MMIIB and destroyed in MMIII by an earthquake,
causing the entire building to crumble to the ground. Four skeletons were discovered in the sanctuary,
one of which may have been sacrificed. It is a controversial topic that is highly debated by scholars and
many theories arguing against human sacrifice at Anemospilia have been considered plausible. However,
I believe that a significant case can be made for human sacrifice based on archaeological record,
including trade routes, architectural features and artifacts, but I will recognize other plausible arguments
that have been made in pertains to Anemospilia.
Before the interior of the sanctuary is examined, an ancient Cretan road system must be analyzed. First
discovered by Sir Arthur Evans, the central trade route spanned from Knossos in the north to Phaistos
in the south with several branched routes bringing socioeconomic needs to small villages, centers and
even sanctuaries on Mount Iuktas. One branch in specific curved up Mt. Iuktas and over to the
sanctuary of Anemospilia, indicating a significance and heavy traffic to this site. Architecturally, the
sanctuary is considered odd in terms of its execution. First, the building is symmetrical, an atypical
Minoan architectural feature, but happens to be more contemporary with later Mycenaean periods,
Minoanizing colonies on Cyprus, and Egypt[4]. Second, this building is unlike any other building on
Crete to date, which suggests that this building was not a part of a larger statecontrolled building
program, or considered the norm for Minoan architecture. This would further indicate that the practices
occurring within the sanctuary were not apart of the state’s jurisdiction either, and it would be possible
that religious officials, locals, and visitors would have come to participate in unusual, but significant,
ceremonies, explaining why such a prominent trade route branched off to the sanctuary[5].
From Anemospilia, a person could see Mount Dikti, Mount Ida, the palatial centers of Knossos
and Herakleion on the north coast of Crete, and the Cretan sea[6]. If one considers the importance of
the courtyard complexes direct view to cave and peak sanctuaries in Minoan religion, than Anemospilia,
with its ability to overlook many important sites of northern Crete, may have been very significant in the
region. The building is commonly accepted as a tripartite sanctuary with an antechamber that seems to
be where rituals were prepared; over 150 different vase shapes were found here, including, a cup of
communion, pithoi, pestle, tripod, and cooking pots. The east room, left of the entrance, was where
bloodless sacrifices were offered, such as fruits, vegetables, and smaller artifacts like clay vases,
bronze boxes and pebbles from the sea. A multiplestep altar was found in the back of the room with an
inscribed plate accompanied by a libation jug, common with the Minoan practice of offering fruit and
libation to one or multiple deities. The central room was elevated slightly higher than the rest of the
sanctuary; the floor was covered with various vessels, and in the southwest corner of the room stood a
bench. On the bench stood a rhyton and a bucketvase. At Aghia Triada, there was a larnax depicting
a bull being sacrificed with a bucketvase underneath to collect blood from the bull, which would explain
the function of the bucketvase in ceremonial context such as at Anemospilia[7]. Two ceramic feet were
also found near the bench and it was suggested that they might have belonged to a Xoanon (Wooden
Idol), examples of ceramic feet also found at Gournia, Malia, Sklavokambos and Kea[8]. Just outside
the west room, there was a stairway leading to possibly a second floor that had collapsed during the
earthquake. The entrance of the west room was unusual as the door ‘s location was to the east,
blocking the view into the room from the antechamber. Bovine and goat bones were found inside the
room in addition to three of the four human bodies found. The first person was a woman, approximately
twentyeight years old, lying on her stomach in the southwest corner of the room. Towards the north of
the room was a man, about thirtyeight years old, in the boxer’s position, protecting his head with his
hands; he had a silveriron ring on his left hand and an agate sealstone on his wrist, depicting a man
paddling vigorously on a boat. Both of these items signified the man’s status in Minoan society, but what
they tell us about his obligations in society is uncertain. The third body belonged to an eighteen year old
youth located on a small elevation situated in the northwest of the room with his jaw clenched and
ankles near the back of his thighs in a very unnatural position. The fourth body was located between the
entrance of the east room and the antechamber; it appears that he or she was carrying a bucketvase
from the east room and was crushed by stones during the earthquake. Based on the relief found at
Aghia Triada, it seems possible that this person was carrying the bucketvase out of the east room to
join the other three with the intent to collect a libation, or blood, for an offering.
The elevation the youth was on could be viewed as an altar. Initially what stood out about this altar
was its trapezoidal shape, composed of clay and stone with a wooden top, and its privatized location
behind a pillar in the room. Also on the altar was a rare bronze weapon with two rectangularslots in
the middle of the blade and its short handle, incised with a, “fantastical beast with erect ears like
butterflywings, a long nose, and boarlike tusks”[9]. The bronze weapon might have been part of a
spear and the holes on the blade were used to fasten the spearhead to the shaft of the spear. The bone
coloration of the youth also raised suspicion for sacrifice. Furthest from the altar surface, the bones
were calcined and on the surface of the platform, they were charred. This difference in bone
decomposition means that the youth bled out significantly before being engulfed in flames caused by the
earthquake. Arguments against this reasoning have been made, including that the charred and calcine
bones were not necessarily due to the youth losing blood before his death, but had to do with the youth
positioned on his side. Fluid and organs in the abdomen would have protected the charred bones, while
the calcine bones would have been exposed to an intense heat that would explain the burn patterns as
well[10]. Other scholars have taken the evidence from Anemospilia and explained the context of the
sanctuary through different, but plausible, interpretations.
Robert Cromarty suggested that if the youth was deceased before the earthquake, this might have been
a ceremony to prepare him for the afterlife, linking the sanctuary with the local cemetery in Phourni, west
of Anemospilia[11]. However, if this was a common funerary practice in the Minoan religion, why is
there no evidence of these types of structures near other major cemeteries? This also does not explain
the unusual structure of the building; if it had been part of a religious funerary practice controlled by a
Minoan palace center, I believe the structure would have reflected this. Nanno Marinatos does not
associate this structure with ceremonial practice at all and instead believes the building is a house where
a local chieftain or priest would have lived outside the center of Archanes[12]. This chieftain would have
had enough status to control farmland and the local economy, but still would have been providing for a
higher authority in a nearby palatial center, such as Knossos or Troullos. In this house, the chieftain
would have divided crops, taken care of administrative affairs, and had religious ceremonies. People of
the local community who were participating in the local economic or religious ceremonies would have
used the branched trade route leading up to the house. Marinatos compares the Anemospilia complex
to a large rural building in Vathypetro, about four km south of Archanes[13]. The building had living
quarter upstairs, a storage room downstairs, grape and olive press, as well as a connecting road to a
ceramics workshop with a kiln. This house in Vathypetro was used for economic and religious
purposes, concluding that the functions and artifacts found there matched the house in Anemospilia. I
believe that there is little evidence to support Marinatos’ house theory. First, there was no evidence of a
storage room, living quarters or people habituating in Anemospilia. Second, both were excavated by the
Sakellarkis’ and I believe that they would have made mention to the similarities between Vathypetro and
Anemospilia had there been any, which they do not. Third, the structure of Anemospilia had elements
that were specific to cultic practice, such as horns of consecration, rhyton, bucketvase, offering tables
and the Xoanon, on the other hand, Vathypetro seems to have had elements specific to a
workshop[14]. Personal opinions aside, scholars have made plausible arguments for and against human
sacrifice at Anemospilia based on the information obtained through excavation.
It nearly impossible to find out if the youth was sacrificed before the earthquake because Anemospilia
was destroyed with the four persons inside and a lot of damage was done to the bodies and artifacts. In
order to positively identify Anemospilia as a cultic sanctuary with a rare instance of human sacrifice,
archaeologists must rely on future excavation and research to provide an answer. Historic texts may not
be viewed as factual, but they offer scholars context for which human sacrifice was conducted.
Generally, sacrificial events took place during times of extreme chaos or distress, which is useful
information when trying to understand sacrifice in terms of Minoan society and culture. It would seem
plausible that in time of war or natural disaster people would turn to extreme sacrifice as a reaction to
their surrounding environment, but until concrete evidence is brought forth, scholars are left attempting to
bridge archaeological remains with their ancient historical counterparts.
[1]
Cromarty, Robert J. Burning Bulls, Broken Bones: Sacrifiical Ritual in the Context of Palace Period
Minoan Religion. BAR International Series 1792. Archaeopress. Oxford, UK.2008. Print
[2]
Hughes, Dennis D. Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication
Data. Routledge. New York, NY. 1991. PDF.
[3]
Ibid.
[4]
Sakellarakēs, Giannēs, and E. SapounaSakellarakē. Archanes. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1991. Print.
[5]
Cromarty, Robert J. Burning Bulls, Broken Bones: Sacrifiical Ritual in the Context of Palace Period
Minoan Religion. BAR International Series 1792.Oxford, UK. Archaeopress. 2008. Print
[6]
Sakellarakēs, Giannēs, and E. SapounaSakellarakē. Archanes. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1991. Print.
[7]
Ibid.
[8]
Ibid.
[9]
Sakellarakēs, Giannēs, and E. SapounaSakellarakē. Archanes. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1991. Print.
[10]
Cromarty, Robert J. Burning Bulls, Broken Bones: Sacrifiical Ritual in the Context of Palace Period
Minoan Religion. BAR International Series 1792.Oxford, UK. Archaeopress. 2008. Print
[11]
Ibid.
[12]
Marinatos, Nanno. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image and Symbol. Columbia. University of South
Carolina Press. 1993. Print.
[13]
Marinatos, Nanno. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image and Symbol. Columbia. University of South
Carolina Press. 1993. Print.
[14]
Cromarty, Robert J. Burning Bulls, Broken Bones: Sacrifiical Ritual in the Context of Palace Period
Minoan Religion. BAR International Series 1792.Oxford, UK. Archaeopress. 2008. Print