examining information behavior through social networks

Examining information behavior

through social networks

An interdisciplinary review

Barbara Schultz-Jones

College of Information, Library Science and Technologies,

University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the post-1996 literature of information science and
other disciplines for the application of social network theory and social network analysis to research
that provides an understanding of information environments.
Design/methodology/approach – The literature review involved a content analysis of 373 articles
retrieved from five electronic journal databases offering broad disciplinary coverage, and a selection of
nine peer-reviewed electronic access journals in information science. Each database was limited to
academic or peer reviewed journals and searched using two query phrases: social network theory
(SNT) and social network analysis (SNA).
Findings – The paper demonstrates the growth of interest by information science and other
disciplines in research that applies social network theory and utilizes social network analysis,
indicating what research approaches and major focus trends differentiate the disciplines.
Research limitations/implications – The search phrases overlook articles using social networks
as the only key phrase for indexing. However, the intention was to examine the application of a
theoretical concept and specific methodology, so the terms used were appropriate for this purpose.
Practical implications – The paper identifies opportunities to apply social network theory and
social network analysis to the study of the exchange of information resources.
Originality/value – The paper demonstrates that information science could advance valuable
contributions to an understanding of information behavior using social network theory and social
network analysis as a vehicle to connect with a significant body of existing research in other
disciplines.

Keywords Social networks, Information organizations, Information science, Group dynamics

Paper type Literature review

1. Introduction
This study reviews the post-1996 literature on the application of social network theory
and social network analysis to information science (IS), including an analysis of
bibliometric data. In 1996, Caroline Haythornthwaite published an article examining
the applicability of social network analysis to the information profession. Her
conclusion was that “this approach has practical application in both assessing and
modifying information needs and information delivery, providing the information
professional with new tools to apply to information issues” (Haythornthwaite, 1996,
p. 340). With an increased research focus on the social and affective aspects of
information behavior (Pettigrew et al., 2001; Otte and Rousseau, 2002) it is instructive
to review the contribution that social network theory and analysis make to an
understanding of information environments. To serve this objective, the paper

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0022-0418.htm

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Received 16 October 2007
Revised 6 October 2008
Accepted 26 October 2008

Journal of Documentation
Vol. 65 No. 4, 2009
pp. 592-631

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0022-0418
DOI 10.1108/00220410910970276

provides the background of social network theory and social network analysis,
analyzes the themes of peer-reviewed publications indexed with the phrases social
network theory and social network analysis, and discusses the scholarly application of
social network theory and analysis in major research areas with emphasis on IS.

2. Background
The use of the term theory in relation to social networks varies across the literature,
often used interchangeably with analysis. This ambiguity relates to the variety of
applications of theory in research studies. Pettigrew and McKechnie’s (2001, p. 68)
review on an author’s use of theory in IS research identified a wide range of definitions:

Numerous examples came to light during our analysis in which an author would
simultaneously refer to something as a theory and a method, or as a theory and a model, or as
a theory and a reported finding. In other words, it seems as though authors, themselves, are
sometimes unsure about what constitutes theory.

Salancik (1995, p. 348) believed that research focused on networks invoked theory
rather than demonstrating a theoretical premise, believing:

A network theory should do either of two things: (1) It should propose how adding or
subtracting a particular interaction in an organizational network will change coordination
among actors in the network; or (2) It should propose how a network structure enables and
disenables the interactions between two parties. In short, a network theory of organization
should propose how structures of interactions enable coordinated interaction to achieve
collective and individual interests.

However, Borgatti and Foster (2003, p. 1005) said that network theories emerged
throughout the 1990s “in virtually every traditional area of organizational
scholarship”. Keeping in mind that confusion over a standard definition of what
constitutes a theory may be distracting, identifying the use of social network theory as
a means to explain the workings of networks applies to a significant number of
research studies. As such, a review of the literature involving the application or
discussion of social network theory is worth attention.

The distinction between social network theory and social network analysis is

fundamental. Social network theory seeks to explain the workings of networks, in
keeping with definitions of theory as “generalizations which seek to explain
relationships among phenomena” (Grover and Glazier, 1986, p. 228), “an internally
connected and logically consistent proposition about relationships among phenomena”
(Odi, 1982, p. 313), and “a complex set of relationships amongst several variables”
(Babbie, 1989, p. 46). Social network analysis is the methodology used to research
network behavior. Common to both applications are a set of terms and attributes that
form the terminology of network research (see Table I).

2.1 Social network theory
The application of social network theory to the study of groups and group dynamics
has its roots in the 1930s and the formulation of sociometry (Moreno, 1934). Sociometry
measures the interpersonal aspects of human relationships, in particular, how people
choose each other for different tasks and in different situations (Blumberg and Hare,
1999). In addition, sociometry advances the observational approach to group dynamics
(Moreno, 1954) that encourages researchers to measure and observe as ongoing

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processes. Remer (1995) maintains that recent derivatives of sociometry overlook the
essence of Moreno’s formulation and focus primarily on the outcome of the choices
made by group members. For Remer, the true interpretation and value of sociometry is
in recognizing that the process of making choices reflects a connection between
individuals. Understanding the rationale behind those choices provides a deeper
understanding of the interpersonal dynamics of a group. Both outcomes and
interpersonal choices are relevant to the behavior of a network.

Social network theory suggests that the patterns and implications of relationships

demonstrate specific behavioral principles and properties: “network theories require
specification in terms of patterns of relations, characterizing a group or social system
as a whole” (Wasserman and Faust, 1999, p. 22). The behavior of models that
incorporate networks benefits from an understanding of these dimensions. Monge and
Contractor (2003, p. 45) remarked that their “review of the vast network research
literature led us to realize that relatively few network studies utilize theories as the
basis for formulating research hypotheses”. The use of social network theory as a
premise for predicting network behavior, then, is expectedly lower than the application
of the methodology to analyze network structure and operations. To date, two
prominent network properties provide a framework for viewing network behavior, and
these properties provide the basis for articles invoking the use of social network theory.

2.1.1 The strength of weak ties. Mark Granovetter (1973) and his information

diffusion model introduced an argument on the strength of weak ties that serve as

Concept

Description

Network

An interconnected system

Node/actor/social entity

The discrete units in the network; individual or social group

Network approach

Level of analysis/discussion of network relationships

Egocentric

Single node as the focus of attention

Whole

Consideration of all nodes in the environment

Ties

The relationship connection between pairs of nodes

Content

The resource shared, delivered or exchanged

Directed/asymmetrical

Content flows in one direction

Reciprocal/symmetrical

Content flows in both directions

Undirected

Physically proximate but no exchange, or exchange not relevant

Strong

Close association, based on the research context

Weak

Distant association, based on the research context

Structural properties

Pattern of ties within a network

Size

The number of logically possible relationships; reach of access

Density

Extent to which members are connected to all other members

Degree

Number of connections to other actors, outgoing and incoming

Centralization

Extent to which a set of actors is organized around a central point

Distance

Number of connections between actors enabling reachability

Clusters

Subgroups of highly interconnected actors

Cliques

Fully interconnected clusters

Network positions

Location of actor in relation to others

Prominence

Network position of distinction

Brokerage

Network positions providing bridging opportunities to other networks

Equivalence

Categorizing actors with the same profile of relations across all other
actors in the network

Table I.
Terminology of network
research

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bridges between network segments. He defined tie strength as a function of three
factors: frequency of contact, reciprocity, and friendship. His research study about the
flow of job related information demonstrated that the power of acquaintances in a
network of social relations was more influential than the egocentric social network of
personal relations. The short, weak chains of connection proved to be of the most
benefit and significance in the receipt of useful job information. Granovetter (1983, p.
229) reaffirmed his argument with an eight-year literature review on research studies
applying the strength of weak ties. He concluded that “the most pressing need for
further development of network ideas is a move away from static analyses that observe
a system at one point in time and to pursue instead systematic accounts of how such
systems develop and change”.

2.1.2 Structural holes. Ronald Burt of the University of Chicago studied

inter-organizational relations and approached the analysis from a structural
perspective. He published a considerable body of work through the 1970s and 1980s
with the classic publication in 1992 of the book Structural Holes. The concept he
advanced of identifying and locating gaps in an organizational structure where
linkages are missing and entrepreneurial opportunities exist is fundamental to
understanding the behavior of firms in various sectors of the economy. His use of social
network analysis to advance the study of networks beyond interpersonal relations is
important to the use of interdisciplinary applications of network theory.

2.2 Social network analysis
Social network analysis is an approach and set of techniques applied to the study of the
relational aspects of networks. To apply the concepts regarding the behavior of
networks it is essential to identify the roles and positions of the members of the
network. A number of techniques exist to capture relational data, including:

Social network map – an instrument developed by Todd (cited in Curtis, 1979)
where a series of concentric circles provide the space for an individual to indicate
nearness or distance of relatives, friends, neighbors or others in relation to the
individual’s central position. (Hersberger, 2003; Pettigrew, 1997).

Surveys and interviews – personal or group network surveys that identify
information exchange connections (Cross and Parker, 2003), or individual
interviews that elicit the exchange relations.

Agent-based technology to capture email and document flow across servers.

Metrics of journals, authors, citations, co-citations, web sites, online community
positions.

Once network data are gathered, a visual representation of the network configuration
provides the means to analyze the structural properties. The combination of
observation and representation is a cogent approach to enable analysis of group
process. By mapping the structure of interactions, a researcher can identify the
channels through which information flows from one node to another and the potential
for a corresponding influence of one over another.

Software modeling is a powerful way to assists the process of data analysis. A

number of software programs offer the means to input relational data and present
visual representations of the resulting network(s) (see Table II). A comprehensive list

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of software packages is available on the International Network for Social Network
Analysis Web site at: www.insna.org/software/software_old.html

Relationships are a key factor in making a network analysis and determining the

connection between two or more people or concepts. The flow of information
characterizes relationships, depicting “networks of resource routes between major and
minor network actors” (Haythornthwaite, 1996, p. 324). Information can flow
asymmetrically, in one direction, be undirected, or reciprocal with a high or low level of
interchange. In addition, relationships can be assessed as either strong or weak,
depending on the number and types of those relationships. Therefore, in various
situations the configuration and assessment of relational attributes will vary. The
analysis of these relational attributes results in a representation of the structure of the
relationships. As the relational data is organized, it should demonstrate certain
structural properties (Haythornthwaite, 1996).

A number of identities describe the roles and positions of the actors in the network.

Fulk and Boyd (1991), p. 430) tagged a group of role categories as “group member,
group linker (liaison, gatekeeper or bridge to another group), or isolate (few ties to the
rest of the group)”. Gladwell (2000) examined the critical roles that people play in
linking people to information: connectors enable others to move through a complex
network in just a few steps, or a few degrees of separation (Milgram, 1967); mavens
collect information and most importantly, enjoy sharing their knowledge and
information, so they can be instrumental to the diffusion of information in a network as
information brokers who share and trade what they know; and salesmen persuade
others and inspire acceptance of ideas because they are adept at building rapport and
trust. Will the people in the roles be as important as the position they hold? The benefit
of conducting a research study in a field setting is the opportunity to experience the
personalities of the actors, the roles they play, and the relationships they maintain in
various networks. In other words, observe the information behavior in context.

The social network analysis approach applies across disciplines. Tichy et al. (1979)

suggested using a network approach to examine organizational design and structure.
Since then, the use of social network analysis has extended in organizations to examine
the patterns of relationships across a broad spectrum of opportunities (Borgatti and
Foster, 2003). Sorenson and Waguespack (2005, p. 2) acknowledge the benefit of
research on social networks in research and development, crediting the availability of

Program

Description

KrackPlot

Windows network visualization program for social network analysts;
available for free download

Pajek

Windows program for the analysis and visualization of large
networks; free for noncommercial use

Social network analysis
functional utility (SNAFU)

MacOS general purpose network analysis and algorithm development
software

Social network visualiser for
Linux (SocNetV)

GNU program for Linux OS to compute network properties and
graphically present social networks; also runs on OS X and Windows;
free software

UCINET

Windows program for the analysis of social network data; handles a
maximum of 32,767 nodes; includes NetDraw for drawing social
network diagrams; free for 30-day trial

Table II.
Sample of software
program options for
social network research

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patent data to assess links across inventors and organizations and citations in
academic articles to study information flows. Applications across other disciplines
include counseling research (Koehly and Shivy, 1998), business logistics and
transportation (Phillips and Phillips, 1998), primary care practices (Scott et al., 2005),
the investigation of criminal networks (Coles, 2001), personal communities of
recreation and leisure (Stokowski, 1990), and a perspective for studying the family
(Acock and Hurlbert, 1990). The use of social network analysis in a variety of
situations yields valuable understandings of network dynamics.

A review of the literature demonstrates the growth of interest in the application of

social network theory and social network analysis, and the degree to which IS
embraces the analysis of social networks to assess information opportunities and
improve the delivery of information services (Haythornthwaite, 1996, p. 323).

The literature review included journals grouped according to discipline using the

subject categories applied to each journal in the electronic database Ulrich’s Periodical
Directory, selected because it provides information on serials publications world-wide.
The seven disciplines are:

(1) business and management (BUS);

(2) computer science (CS);

(3) humanities (HUM);

(4) information science (IS);

(5) medicine and health (MED);

(6) sciences (SCI); and

(7) social sciences (SS).

2.3 Research questions
Four research questions guided the literature review for this study:

RQ1. To what extent do information science and the other disciplines demonstrate

interest in social network theory and social network analysis?

RQ2. To what extent do information science and the other disciplines demonstrate a

growth of interest in social network theory and social network analysis?

RQ3. What research approaches do information science and the other disciplines

utilize when they pursue studies in social network theory and social network
analysis?

RQ4. What are the major focus trends of research studies in social network theory

and social network analysis by information science and the other disciplines?

3. Research method
The literature review for this study involved a content analysis of 373 articles retrieved
from five electronic journal databases and a selection of IS journals. The five databases
offer broad disciplinary coverage, thereby allowing for interdisciplinary comparison:

(1) ABI/Inform Global (business and management; 1971 through 2006).

(2) Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA; library and information

technology, management, use and users; 1969 through 2006).

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(3) Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts (LISTA; librarianship,

cataloging and classification, library management and information technology;
mid-1960s through 2006).

(4) PsycInfo (psychology and related disciplines; 1872 through 2006).

(5) ScienceDirect (all areas of science, medicine, and technology, as well as

interdisciplinary titles; 1995 through 2006).

Each database was limited to academic or peer reviewed journals and searched using
two query phrases: social network theory (SNT) and social network analysis (SNA).
Admittedly, the search phrases overlook articles using social networks as the only key
phrase for indexing. However, the intention of this research study was to examine the
application of social network theory and social network analysis so identifying those
terms as key words or phrases in the title or abstract of an article demonstrates the
author’s intention to recognize theoretical concepts and methodology.

To further ensure the identification of IS articles, the search phrases were applied to

nine electronic access journals containing peer reviewed articles that cover a wide
range of research interests within IS:

(1) Information Processing & Management (1995 through 2006);

(2) Information Research (1995 through 2006);

(3) Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (1995

through 2006);

(4) Journal of Documentation (1997 through 2006);

(5) Library and Information Science Research (1995 through 2006);

(6) Library Management (1992 through 2006);

(7) Library Quarterly (1993 through 2006);

(8) Library Review (1994 through 2006); and

(9) The New Review of Information Behaviour Research (2000 through 2006).

The articles retrieved from the IS journal searches were crosschecked to those retrieved
from the electronic databases and combined to produce the complete dataset of IS
results. This dataset includes the addition of articles from six IS journals:

(1) Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science;

(2) Informaatiotutkimus (Finnish);

(3) Journal of Information Science;

(4) Journal of Information Technology;

(5) Online Information Review; and

(6) Svensk Biblioteks Forskning (Swedish).

The final data set included 373 feature articles from 291 journals (see Table III),
excluding book reviews, editorials, and news items. Duplicate returns (articles
retrieved from more than one database) were counted once. An open-ended date range
allowed for an interdisciplinary historical demonstration of this research area.

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Each of the 373 journal article abstracts was examined for the application of each

search phrase, and the data was coded and entered into a spreadsheet for comparison
(see Table IV). Full text articles were retrieved for all IS results (n ¼ 39) and 34 of the
remaining 334 articles. Selection of the 34 full text articles for additional review was
based on the ambiguity of the abstract or an indication of potential focus on
information issues and relationship analyses.

4. Results
The bibliometric research results, organized in answer to the research questions, reveal
the outcome of the content analysis.

4.1 Interest in social network theory and social network analysis
The frequency of articles included in a variety of IS journals indicates that IS
demonstrates interest in social network theory and utilizes social network analysis for
a number of studies (see Table V). Of the 39 articles published, the majority (76.9
percent, n ¼ 30) focused on social network analysis. The international electronic
journal Information Research, providing research results across a wide range of
information-related disciplines, published the highest number of articles (25.6 percent,
n ¼ 10) with the majority (90 percent, n ¼ 9) utilizing an application of social network

Discipline

Articles

Journals

Business and management

Computer science

Humanities

Information science

Medicine and health

Sciences

Social sciences

182

107

Total

373

241

Table III.

Number of articles and

journals per discipline

Item

Description

Query phrase

Social network theory (SNT) or Social network analysis (SNA)

Author(s)

Last name(s)

Publication

Journal name, volume number, issue number, number of pages

Published date

Publication year

Article

Title

Level of analysis

Egocentric or whole network

Time frame

Longitudinal or static

Relationship discussion

Strength of ties

Structural properties

Size, density, degree, centralization, distance, clusters, cliques

Network positions

Prominence, brokerage, equivalence

Structural properties

Pattern of ties within a network

Setting of the study

Crime, education, everyday, library, medical and health, nature, online,
private organization, public organization

Major focus of the study

Diffusion factors, influence of one unit over another, information-
seeking behavior, value emerging from a networked situation

Table IV.

Coding of journal articles

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analysis. The Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology
was second in article publication (20.5 percent, n ¼ 8) and again, the majority (87.5
percent, n ¼ 7) discussed an application of social network analysis. Most IS journals
(73.3 percent, n ¼ 11) included an article(s) that featured either social network theory
or social network analysis while only a few journals (26.6 percent, n ¼ 4) published
articles from both query categories.

Other disciplines demonstrate an interest in social network theory and social

network analysis (see Table VI). In comparison with the six other disciplines
publishing articles focused on social network theory, IS ranks third (11.2 percent,
n ¼ 9) behind Social Sciences (40 percent, n ¼ 32), and Business and Management
(37.5 percent, n ¼ 30). With regard to the use of social network analysis, IS article
publication ranks fourth (10.2 percent, n ¼ 30) behind Social Sciences (51.2 percent,

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Total

Percent

Biblioteksbladet: tidskrift foer Svensk
biblioteksfoerening

–

2.5

Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science

–

2.5

Informaatiotutkimus

–

2.5

Information Processing and Management

12.5

Information Research

25.6

Journal of the American Society for Information
Science and Technology

20.5

Journal of Documentation

–

5.0

Journal of Information Science

–

2.5

Journal of Information Technology

–

2.5

Library and Information Science Research

10.0

Library Management

–

2.5

Library Quarterly

–

2.5

Library Review

–

2.5

The New Review of Information Behaviour Research

–

2.5

Online Information Review

–

2.5

Total

100.0

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table V.
Number of articles per
information science
journal

Query

Discipline

SNT

SNA

Total

Percent

Business and management

22.8

Computer science

4.0

Humanities

1.6

Information science

10.5

Medicine and health

10.2

Sciences

–

2.1

Social sciences

150

182

48.8

Total

293

373

100.0

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory, SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table VI.
Number of articles per
discipline

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n ¼ 150), Business and Management (18.8 percent, n ¼ 55) and Medicine and Health
(11.6 percent, n ¼ 34). Overall, the Social Sciences (48.8 percent) lead Business and
Management (22.8 percent), IS (10.5 percent), and Medicine and Health (10.2 percent) as
the most prolific disciplines applying social network theory and social network
analysis to research studies.

4.2 Growth of interest in social network theory and social network analysis
The increase in articles published over the past three decades indicates a growth of
interest in social network theory and social network analysis (see Figure 1). The trend
intensifies post-2000. While the use of social network theory increased in the past eight
years, the application of social network analysis more than triples in the four year
period 2003 to 2006 (n ¼ 144) as compared to the previous four years, 1999 to 2002
(n ¼ 46). The use of methodology consistently outweighs the application of theory in
articles published since 1975.

IS publications demonstrate the same trend as other disciplines in terms of

increasing interest in social network theory and social network analysis (see Figure 2).
However, the extent of IS interest is more recent than most other disciplines with the
concentration of IS articles in the period 1996 to 2006. The only discipline with a later

Figure 2.

Frequency of article

publication for

information science since

1975

Figure 1.

Frequency of article

publication for all

disciplines since first

publication in 1975

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demonstration of interest is Computer Science with articles published in the period
2000 to 2006. As with other disciplines, the use of methodology consistently outweighs
the application of theory.

4.3 Research approaches
Research approaches reflect a variety of interests in the development and behavior of
networks. The level of analysis concentrates on the network related to an individual
(egocentric) or a network that includes every member of a defined group (whole). The
nodes within these networks are individuals or groups of individuals. For example, the
unit of analysis of an egocentric network may be an individual person whose personal
network of contacts is the subject of study, a work unit examined for the pattern of
intra-organizational exchanges, or an entire company or agency with interest centered
on the international range of inter-organizational contacts.

The object of both approaches is the development of a network of information

exchanges that allows for research of a variety of attributes and patterns of behavior.
For an egocentric analysis, the network develops by identifying the contacts from the
perspective of the individual unit of study. Whole networks include a predetermined
number of contacts, depending on the boundary defining the network.

Each discipline uses both levels of analysis for network studies (see Table VII) with

IS demonstrating a slight preference for whole networks (51.3 percent, n ¼ 20) over
egocentric (48.7 percent, n ¼ 19). While egocentric network studies represent the
largest overall percentage (57.6 percent, n ¼ 215), the remaining disciplines vary in
distribution with whole network approaches dominating in the Sciences (62.5 percent,
n ¼ 5), Business and Management (55.3 percent, n ¼ 47), and Computer Science (53.3
percent, n ¼ 8). Egocentric network studies dominate in the Humanities (83.3 percent,
n ¼ 5), Medicine and Health (76.3 percent, n ¼ 29), and the Social Sciences (62.6
percent, n ¼ 114).

Researching social networks requires a time commitment to data collection (see

Table VIII). The majority of research studies (97.3 percent, n ¼ 363) approach network
analysis as a representation of existing or stable relationships. Longitudinal studies
observe a network at one point in time and systematically re-examine the network over
specific intervals to discover how that network develops and changes. The incidence of
longitudinal studies is infrequent in comparison to static studies with few articles (2.7
percent, n ¼ 10) reporting longitudinal research. IS led the disciplines (10.3 percent,
n ¼ 4), followed by Medicine and Health (2.6 percent, n ¼ 1), the Social Sciences (2.2
percent, n ¼ 4), and Business and Management (1.17 percent, n ¼ 1). Studies in

Discipline

BUS

HUM

MED

SCI

Overall

Level of analysis

n ¼ 85

n ¼ 15

n ¼ 6

n ¼ 39

n ¼ 38

n ¼ 8

n ¼ 182

n ¼ 373

Egocentric

44.7

46.7

83.3

48.7

76.3

37.5

62.6

57.6

Whole network

55.3

53.3

16.7

51.3

23.7

62.5

37.4

42.4

Total

100.0

Notes: BUS ¼ Business and management; CS ¼ Computer science; HUM ¼ Humanities;
IS ¼ Information science; MED ¼ Medicine and health; SCI ¼ Sciences; SS ¼ Social sciences

Table VII.
Articles per level of
analysis (percent)

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Computer Science, the Humanities and the Sciences did not include research that
revisited the growth or development of a particular network.

The approach to the study of network behaviors relates to an interest in the

relations constituting the network. Relationships involve patterns of exchange between
individual units of study (ties) or across the network’s structure (see Table IX).
Research studies examined the structural principles of networks in most of the
publications (90.1 percent, n ¼ 336). The relationship connection between pairs of
nodes/actors/entities as the primary approach does not dominate the research in any of
the disciplines.

4.4 Major trends in focus of research studies
The research literature details the exploration of a variety of relational dynamics and
efforts to develop an understanding of the formation and behavior of social networks.
The research setting contributes to the context of the network environment (see
Table X) and each article identified a primary location for the study or discussion. The
largest percentage of research occurs in an organizational setting (28.7 percent,
n ¼ 107) with private organizations (25 percent, n ¼ 93) leading public organizations
(3.7 percent, n ¼ 14). Education settings include all levels of education facilities from
primary grades through university, accounting for the second highest location (21.7
percent, n ¼ 81) for social network research. Following closely behind education
locales are everyday sites (21.2 percent, n ¼ 79) including family units, kinship
networks, urban adolescents, the aged, ethnic groups and impoverished street
populations. The fourth largest percentage of research centered in medical facilities
(14.2 percent, n ¼ 53). These included hospitals, physician practices, community health
clinics, and long-term health facilities. Online settings accounted for a small percentage

Discipline

BUS

HUM

MED

SCI

Overall

Attribute

n ¼ 85

n ¼ 15

n ¼ 6

n ¼ 39

n ¼ 38

n ¼ 8

n ¼ 182

n ¼ 373

Relationship (ties)

14.1

–

16.7

10.3

10.5

–

8.8

9.9

Structural principles

85.9

100.0

83.3

89.7

89.5

100.0

91.2

90.1

Total

100.0

Notes: BUS ¼ Business and management; CS ¼ Computer science; HUM ¼ Humanities;
IS ¼ Information science; MED ¼ Medicine and health; SCI ¼ Sciences; SS ¼ Social sciences

Table IX.

Articles per network

attribute (percent)

Discipline

Time frame

BUS

HUM

MED

SCI

Overall

n ¼ 85

n ¼ 15

n ¼ 6

n ¼ 39

n ¼ 38

n ¼ 8

n ¼ 182

n ¼ 373

Longitudinal

1.17

–

10.3

2.6

–

2.2

2.7

Static

98.83

100.0

89.7

97.4

100.0

97.8

97.3

Total

100.0

Notes: BUS ¼ Business and management; CS ¼ Computer science; HUM ¼ Humanities;
IS ¼ Information science; MED ¼ Medicine and health; SCI ¼ Sciences; SS ¼ Social sciences

Table VIII.

Articles per time frame

(percent)

Examining

information

behavior

603

of studies (9.1 percent, n ¼ 34) where studies examined virtual communities and social
network web sites. A recent percentage of the studies (2.4 percent, n ¼ 9) centered on
individuals who aligned themselves with terror or criminal activities while a smaller
percentage focused on natural habitats (1.3 percent, n ¼ 5) and libraries (1.3 percent,
n ¼ 5).

The disciplines display a range of research settings with the Social Sciences

situating studies in eight of the nine categories, omitting libraries. IS follows with
research in seven of the nine categories, omitting crime and nature. Business and
Management research ranks third with six of the nine settings, omitting crime,
libraries and natural habitats. Education is the only setting with research studies from
all disciplines. Computer Science situated the highest percentage of its studies (40
percent, n ¼ 6) in the online environment. Libraries provided a research setting for IS
alone.

The collection of network research data emphasizes the social structure relating to

an individual unit or the social structure of a group of units. A study’s substantive
research question determined how the data was collected (the research approach). It
also determined why the data is collected: the research focus. Network studies vary in
terms of the research focus (see Table XI).

Discipline

BUS

HUM

MED

SCI

Overall

Setting

n ¼ 85

n ¼ 15

n ¼ 6

n ¼ 39

n ¼ 38

n ¼ 8

n ¼ 182

n ¼ 373

Crime

–

6.7

–

2.6

–

3.8

2.4

Education

7.1

20.0

50.0

30.0

2.6

37.5

29.2

21.7

Everyday

2.4

–

50.0

12.5

36.9

12.5

30.2

21.2

Library

–

12.5

–

1.3

Medical facility

2.4

–

7.5

50.0

12.5

15.4

14.2

Nature

–

7.9

–

1.1

1.3

Online

10.6

40.0

–

22.5

–

25.0

4.4

9.1

Private org.

72.9

26.6

–

10.0

–

12.5

12.1

25.0

Public org.

4.7

6.7

–

5.0

–

3.8

Total

100.0

Notes: BUS ¼ Business and management; CS ¼ Computer science; HUM ¼ Humanities;
IS ¼ Information science; MED ¼ Medicine and health; SCI ¼ Sciences; SS ¼ Social sciences

Table X.
Articles per setting
(percent)

Discipline

BUS

HUM

MED

SCI

Overall

Focus

n ¼ 85

n ¼ 15

n ¼ 6

n ¼ 39

n ¼ 38

n ¼ 8

n ¼ 182

n ¼ 373

Diffusion factors

28.3

20.0

33.3

10.3

44.7

25.0

18.7

23.1

Influence

25.9

26.7

50.0

51.3

10.6

37.5

9.4

19.6

Information seeking

3.5

6.6

–

25.6

–

2.7

5.1

Value

42.3

46.7

16.7

12.8

44.7

37.5

69.2

52.2

Total

100.0

Notes: BUS ¼ Business and management; CS ¼ Computer science; HUM ¼ Humanities;
IS ¼ Information science; MED ¼ Medicine and health; SCI ¼ Sciences; SS ¼ Social sciences

Table XI.
Articles per focus
(percent)

JDOC
65,4

604

Four broad typological areas describe the research streams from this literature review.
First, the majority of studies (52.2 percent, n ¼ 195) focused on the impact or value
received from a network situation. These studies examined network structures, the
various roles that different actors assumed, and the return on these network
connections. The research studies focused on understanding the interactions between
actors and expressed value as social capital, power, trust, economic advantage,
support, and development potential.

Second, a number of studies (23.1 percent, n ¼ 86) focused on the activation of a

network to diffuse or disseminate information or resources. The diffusion research
includes the movement of knowledge, information, language, disease, addictive habits
and affective behaviors.

The third grouping (19.6 percent, n ¼ 73) emphasized influence relating to the

impact an individual unit has over another. These studies included collaborative
ventures, strategic alliances, citation analyses, mentor associations and coalitions. Of
the IS articles considering influence factors (51.3 percent, n ¼ 20) most of them (75
percent, n ¼ 15) demonstrated an interest in intellectual and social influence through
citation analysis, cocitation analysis or hyperlink affiliations.

Finally, a small group of studies (5.1 percent, n ¼ 19) concentrated solely on the

efforts of individuals or firms seeking specific information on a topic or theme.

Each discipline emphasizes a particular research focus. IS has the highest incidence

of studies relating to influence (51.3 percent, n ¼ 20), researching primarily publication
networks, followed closely by the Humanities (50 percent, n ¼ 3), researching only
citation and co-authorship patterns. Research directed towards the relational,
contextual and systemic value of networks dominates the Social Sciences (69.2
percent, n ¼ 126), Computer Science (46.7 percent, n ¼ 7), and Business and
Management (42.3 percent, n ¼ 36) studies. Medicine and Health shows an equally
dominant research focus between the value derived from networks (44.7 percent,
n ¼ 17) and diffusion factors (44.7 percent, n ¼ 17). The Sciences demonstrate an equal
focus on research related to value (37.5 percent, n ¼ 3) and influence (37.5 percent,
n ¼ 3). Not surprisingly, IS demonstrates the highest interest in research studies
related solely to information seeking (25.6 percent, n ¼ 10).

5. Discussion
This research study focused on the query results of two key phrases: social network
theory and social network analysis (Table XII). It relied, therefore, on the use of those
phrases for indexing articles that apply these approaches to research studies. While
this effort retrieved a significant body of research, studies that utilized the key phrase
of social networks to identify the application of either social network theory or social
network analysis remain excluded. Despite this potential limitation, the volume of
articles retrieved from the search queries demonstrates an interest in social network
theory and social network analysis by IS and other disciplines. The recent increase in
volume of publications and the results of the content analysis of this literature review
suggest increased and continuing interest in social network theory and social network
analysis across disciplines (Tables XIII to XIX). A number of observations emerged
from this research.

Examining

information

behavior

605

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Academy of Management Journal

Business and management

Academy of Management Review

Business and management

Accounting, Organizations and Society

Business and management

ACM Communications of the ACM

Computer science

ACM Transactions on Information Systems

Computer science

Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologica de America Latina

Social sciences

Addiction

Medicine and health

Addictive Behaviors

Social sciences

Administration and Policy in Mental Health

Medicine and health

Administration & Society

Business and management

Administration in Social Work

Social sciences

Administrative Science Quarterly

Business and management

Advances in Medical Sociology

Medicine and health

Ageing & Society

Social sciences

AIDS

Medicine and health

AIDS Patient Care and STDs

Medicine and health

American Ethnologist

Social sciences

American Journal of Community Psychology

Social sciences

American Journal of Economics and Sociology

Social sciences

American Journal of Sociology

Social sciences

American Marketing Association

Business and management

American Psychologist

Social sciences

American Sociological Review

Social sciences

Annales de Cardiologie et d’Angeiologie

Medicine and health

Annals of Family Medicine

Medicine and health

Anthrozoos

Social sciences

Apuntes de Psicologia

Social sciences

Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology

Social sciences

Australian Journal on Ageing

Social sciences

Behavior Research and Therapy

Social sciences

Behavioral Disorders

Social sciences

Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology

Social sciences

Behaviormetrika

Social sciences

Biblioteksbladet: tidskrift foer Svensk
biblioteksfoerening

Information science

Brain Injury

Medicine and health

British Journal of Criminology

Social sciences

British Journal of Educational Psychology

Social sciences

British Journal of Industrial Relations

Business and management

British Journal of Sociology

Social sciences

California Management Review

Business and management

Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality

Social sciences

Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science

Information science

Canadian Journal on Aging

Social sciences

Child Development

Social sciences

Cities

Business and management

CJNR: Canadian Journal of Nursing Research

Medicine and health

College Student Journal

Social sciences

Communication Education

Social sciences

(continued)

Table XII.
Query results by journal

JDOC
65,4

606

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Communication Research

Social sciences

Community Mental Health Journal

Medicine and health

Computational and Mathematical Organization
Theory

Business and management

Computers & Education

Social sciences

Computers in Biology and Medicine

Medicine and health

Computers in Industry

Business and management

Construction Management and Economics

Business and management

Corporate Communications: An International
Journal

Business and management

Crime, Law and Social Change

Social sciences

CyberPsychology & Behavior

Social sciences

Data & Knowledge Engineering

Computer science

Decision Support Systems

Business and management

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Medicine and health

Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy

Medicine and health

Ecological Economics

Social sciences

Ecological Modelling

Social sciences

Economy and Society

Social sciences

Electronic Commerce Research and Applications

Business and management

Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science

Computer science

Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice

Business and management

Environmental Impact Assessment Review

Social sciences

Ethnic and Racial Studies

Social sciences

Ethos

Social sciences

European Journal of Political Economy

Social sciences

European Journal of Research Methods for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences

Social sciences

European Management Journal

Business and management

European Management Review

Business and management

Evaluation: The International Journal of Theory,
Research and Practice

Social sciences

Family & Community Health

Medicine and health

First Monday

Computer science

Forensic Science International

Medicine and health

Forest Products Journal

Social sciences

GeoJournal

Sciences

Gerontologist

Social sciences

Group & Organization Studies

Business and management

Group Decision and Negotiation

Business and management

Gruppendynamik und Organisationsbera

¨ tung

Business and management

Health Education Research

Medicine and health

Health Policy and Planning

Medicine and health

History of the Family

Social sciences

Human Development

Social sciences

Human Relations

Social sciences

Human Resource Development Review

Business and management

Industrial Management & Data Systems

Business and management

Industrial Marketing Management

Business and management

(continued)

Table XII.

Examining

information

behavior

607

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Informaatiotutkimus

Information science

Information and Management

Computer science

Information and Software Technology

Computer science

Information Processing and Management

Information science

Information Research

Information science

Information Systems

Computer science

Interdisciplinaria Revista de Psicologia y Ciencias
Afines

Social sciences

International Journal of Action Methods:
Psychodrama, Skill Training, and Role Playing

Social sciences

International Journal of Aging & Human
Development

Social sciences

International Journal of Behavioral Development

Social sciences

International Journal of Drug Policy

Medicine and health

International Journal of Emergency Mental Health

Medicine and health

International Journal of Family Therapy

Social sciences

International Journal of Human-Computer Studies

Computer science

International Journal of Management & Decision
Making

Business and management

International Journal of Physical Distribution
& Logistics

Business and management

International Journal of Productivity and
Performance Management

Business and management

International Journal of Technology Management

Business and management

International Journal of Technology Transfer
& Commercialisation

Business and management

International Journal of the Addictions

Medicine and health

International Small Business Journal

Business and management

International Social Work

Social sciences

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion

Humanities

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Adolescent Health

Medicine and health

Journal of Adolescent Research

Social sciences

Journal of Applied Behavioral Science

Social sciences

Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Applied Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Biomedical Informatics

Medicine and health

Journal of Business to Business Marketing

Business and management

Journal of Business Venturing

Business and management

Journal of Communication

Social sciences

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication

Social sciences

Journal of Conflict Resolution

Social sciences

Journal of Consciousness Studies

Social sciences

Journal of Consumer Research

Business and management

Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice

Social sciences

Journal of Counseling Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Database Management

Computer science

Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities

Social sciences

Journal of Documentation

Information science

(continued)

Table XII.

JDOC
65,4

608

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Journal of Early Adolescence

Social sciences

Journal of Economic Issues

Social sciences

Journal of Educational Computing Research

Social sciences

Journal of Engineering and Technology Management

Business and management

Journal of Family Issues

Social sciences

Journal of Family Violence

Social sciences

Journal of Gang Research

Social sciences

Journal of Genetic Counseling

Medicine and health

Journal of Gerontology

Social sciences

Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama
& Sociometry

Social sciences

Journal of Health and Social Behavior

Social sciences

Journal of Health Organization and Management

Medicine and health

Journal of Information Science

Information science

Journal of Information Technology

Information science

Journal of Interactive Learning Research

Social sciences

Journal of International Business Studies

Business and management

Journal of Knowledge Management

Business and management

Journal of Leisure Research

Social sciences

Journal of Management

Business and management

Journal of Management Studies

Business and management

Journal of Marketing

Business and management

Journal of Marketing Research

Business and management

Journal of Mathematical Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Organization Behavior

Business and management

Journal of Organization Behavior Management

Business and management

Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic
Commerce

Business and management

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Social sciences

Journal of Primary Prevention

Medicine and health

Journal of Public Affairs

Business and management

Journal of Research on Adolescence

Social sciences

Journal of Social and Biological Systems

Social sciences

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships

Social sciences

Journal of Social Service Research

Social sciences

Journal of Substance Abuse

Medicine and health

Journal of the American Society for Information
Science and Technology

Information science

Journal of the American Statistical Association

Social sciences

Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe
Handicaps

Medicine and health

Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy
of Management

Business and management

Journal of the China Society for Scientific and
Technical Information

Sciences

Journal of the Medical Library Association

Medicine and health

Ko¨lner Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Soziologie und

Sozialpsychologie

Social sciences

Language in Society

Humanities

(continued)

Table XII.

Examining

information

behavior

609

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Leadership Quarterly

Business and management

(The) Learning Organization

Business and management

Leisure Sciences

Social sciences

Library and Information Science Research

Information science

Library Management

Information science

Library Quarterly

Information science

Library Review

Information science

Linear Algebra and its Applications

Social sciences

M@n@gement

Business and management

Management International Review

Business and management

Management Science

Business and management

Marriage & Family Review

Social sciences

Microbes and Infection

Sciences

Modern Language Journal

Humanities

New Media & Society

Social sciences

New Review of Information Behaviour Research

Information science

Omega: Journal of Death and Dying

Social sciences

Online Information Review

Information science

Organization Science

Business and management

Organizational Dynamics

Business and management

ORMS: Operations Research Management Science

Business and management

Patient Education and Counseling

Medicine and health

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Social sciences

Poetics

Humanities

Preventive Veterinary Medicine

Medicine and health

Project Management Journal

Business and management

Psicologia Contemporanea

Social sciences

Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal

Social sciences

Psychological Bulletin

Social sciences

Psychological Reports

Social sciences

Psychology

Social sciences

Psychology & Marketing

Social sciences

Public Administration Review

Business and management

Qualitative Market Research

Business and management

R&D Management

Business and management

Recherche et Applications en Marketing

Business and management

Research in Rural Sociology and Development

Social sciences

Research Methodology in Strategy and Management

Business and management

Research on Managing Groups and Teams

Business and management

Research Policy

Business and management

Review of General Psychology

Social sciences

Scandinavian Journal of Management

Business and management

Schizophrenia Bulletin

Medicine and health

Scientometrics

Sciences

SIGIR Forum, 2005 Proceedings

Computer science

Social Networks

Social sciences

Social Psychology Quarterly

Social sciences

Social Science and Medicine

Social sciences

Social Science Research

Social sciences

(continued)

Table XII.

JDOC
65,4

610

5.1 Growth of interest
The growth of interest in social network theory and social network analysis coincides
with an evolution of research interests. The applications of social network theory and
social network analysis demonstrate the movement from research that viewed
networks solely as “a system of objects (e.g. people, groups, organizations) joined by a
variety of relationships” (Tichy et al., 1979, p. 507), toward “more relational, contextual
and systemic understandings” (Borgatti and Foster, 2003, p. 991). In other words, the
research moves from primary emphasis on understanding the structure of networks to
understanding the information environment within which networks reside and the
information environment that is created by a network structure and function. This
places the research of networks alongside information behavior in context, where the
definition of context is “the particular combination of person and situation that served
to frame an investigation” (Case, 2002, p. 13).

The movement in social network research towards attention to contextual variables

mirrors a similar shift of information behavior research in IS, defined by Pettigrew et al.
(2001, p. 44) as “the study of how people need, seek, give, and use information in
different contexts, including the workplace and everyday life”. According to Pettigrew
et al. (2001, p. 54) IS research “approaches to studying information behavior that focus
on social contexts emerged slowly during the early 1990s and are becoming
increasingly prominent”.

With an increase in the focus on information behavior research in IS (Case, 2002;

Dervin and Nilan, 1986; Pettigrew et al., 2001; Wilson, 2000), and a corresponding rise
in qualitative research methods (Vakkari, 1997, p. 458) it is not surprising to see an
upswing in the use of social network theory and social network analysis comparable to
other disciplines. The application of both theory and methodology reflect the increased
interest in social network research.

Query

Journal

SNT

SNA

Discipline

Socio-Economic Review

Social sciences

Sociological Methods & Research

Social sciences

Sociology of Education

Social sciences

South African Journal of Business Management

Business and management

Strategic Management Journal

Business and management

Technovation

Computer science

Theoretical Computer Science

Computer science

The´rapie Familiale

Medicine and health

Transcultural Psychiatry

Social sciences

Transportation Journal

Business and management

University of Chicago Law Review

Social sciences

Web Semantics

Computer science

Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Arbeits- und Organizationspsychologie

Social sciences

Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Personalpsychologie

Social sciences

Zo¨lner Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie

Social sciences

Total

294

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XII.

Examining

information

behavior

611

Business and management

SNT

SNA

Academy of Management Journal

Academy of Management Review

Accounting, Organizations and Society

Administration & Society

Administrative Science Quarterly

American Marketing Association

British Journal of Industrial Relations

California Management Review

Cities

Computational and Mathematical Organization
Theory

Computers in Industry

Construction Management and Economics

Corporate Communications: An International
Journal

Decision Support Systems

Electronic Commerce Research and Applications

Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice

European Management Journal

European Management Review

Group & Organization Studies

Group Decision and Negotiation

Gruppendynamik und Organisationsbera

¨ tung

Human Resource Development Review

Industrial Management & Data Systems

Industrial Marketing Management

International Journal of Management & Decision
Making

International Journal of Physical Distribution
& Logistics

International Journal of Productivity and
Performance Management

International Journal of Technology Management

International Journal of Technology Transfer
& Commercialisation

International Small Business Journal

Journal of Business to Business Marketing

Journal of Business Venturing

Journal of Consumer Research

Journal of Engineering and Technology Management

Journal of International Business Studies

Journal of Knowledge Management

Journal of Management

Journal of Management Studies

Journal of Marketing

Journal of Marketing Research

Journal of Organization Behavior

Journal of Organization Behavior Management

Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic
Commerce

(continued)

Table XIII.
Query results by
discipline

JDOC
65,4

612

Business and management

SNT

SNA

Journal of Public Affairs

Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy
of Management

Leadership Quarterly

(The) Learning Organization

M@n@gement

Management International Review

Management Science

Organization Science

Organizational Dynamics

ORMS: Operations Research Management Science

Project Management Journal

Public Administration Review

Qualitative Market Research

R&D Management

Recherche et Applications en Marketing

Research Methodology in Strategy and Management

Research on Managing Groups and Teams

Research Policy

Scandinavian Journal of Management

South African Journal of Business Management

Strategic Management Journal

Transportation Journal

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XIII.

Computer science

SNT

SNA

ACM Communications of the ACM

ACM Transactions on Information Systems

Data & Knowledge Engineering

Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science

First Monday

Information and Management

Information and Software Technology

Information Systems

International Journal of Human-Computer Studies

Journal of Database Management

SIGIR Forum, 2005 Proceedings

Technovation

Theoretical Computer Science

Web Semantics

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XIV.

Query results by

discipline

Examining

information

behavior

613

5.2 Research approaches
The research approaches to the network studies in this dataset demonstrate the
researchers’ interest in explaining network behaviors, both from the perspective of an
individual actor (egocentric) or a complete (whole) network of contacts. A potential
dilemma for social network studies is their static nature. Despite numerous statements
of the future value of longitudinal research (Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006; Berry et al.,
2004; Granovetter, 1983; Perry-Smith, 2006; Rindfleisch and Moorman, 2001) few
studies (2.7 percent, n ¼ 10) incorporated a long-term approach. Borgatti and Foster
(2003, p. 1000) view this as a consequence of the need for network research to first
establish itself as a legitimate field: “until networks had legitimacy, there was little
point in trying to publish papers on how networks come to be or change over time”. IS
accounts for four of those longitudinal studies with different contributions to the value
of adding a long-term view to the study.

White et al. (2004, p. 124) looked at the growth of intercitation over four four-year

periods within an international network of 16 scholar-authors to determine the extent

Information science

SNT

SNA

Biblioteksbladet: tidskrift foer Svensk
biblioteksfoerening

Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science

Informaatiotutkimus

Information Processing and Management

Information Research

Journal of Documentation

Journal of Information Science

Journal of Information Technology

Journal of the American Society for Information
Science and Technology

Library and Information Science Research

Library Management

Library Quarterly

Library Review

New Review of Information Behaviour Research

Online Information Review

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XVI.
Query results by
discipline

Humanities

SNT

SNA

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion

Language in Society

Modern Language Journal

Poetics

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XV.
Query results by
discipline

JDOC
65,4

614

Medicine and health

SNT

SNA

Addiction

Administration and Policy in Mental Health

Advances in Medical Sociology

AIDS

AIDS Patient Care and STDs

Annales de Cardiologie et d’Angeiologie

Annals of Family Medicine

Brain Injury

CJNR: Canadian Journal of Nursing Research

Community Mental Health Journal

Computers in Biology and Medicine

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy

Family & Community Health

Forensic Science International

Health Education Research

Health Policy and Planning

International Journal of Drug Policy

International Journal of Emergency Mental Health

International Journal of the Addictions

Journal of Adolescent Health

Journal of Biomedical Informatics

Journal of Genetic Counseling

Journal of Health Organization and Management

Journal of Primary Prevention

Journal of Substance Abuse

Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe
Handicaps

Journal of the Medical Library Association

Patient Education and Counseling

Preventive Veterinary Medicine

Schizophrenia Bulletin

The´rapie Familiale

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XVII.

Query results by

discipline

Sciences

SNT

SNA

GeoJournal

Journal of the China Society for Scientific and
Technical Information

Microbes and Infection

Scientometrics

Total

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XVIII.

Query results by

discipline

Examining

information

behavior

615

Social sciences

SNT

SNA

Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologica de America Latina

Addictive Behaviors

Administration in Social Work

Ageing & Society

American Ethnologist

American Journal of Community Psychology

American Journal of Economics and Sociology

American Journal of Sociology

American Psychologist

American Sociological Review

Anthrozoos

Apuntes de Psicologia

Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology

Australian Journal on Ageing

Behavior Research and Therapy

Behavioral Disorders

Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology

Behaviormetrika

British Journal of Criminology

British Journal of Educational Psychology

British Journal of Sociology

Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality

Canadian Journal on Aging

Child Development

College Student Journal

Communication Education

Communication Research

Computers & Education

Crime, Law and Social Change

CyberPsychology & Behavior

Ecological Economics

Ecological Modelling

Economy and Society

Environmental Impact Assessment Review

Ethnic and Racial Studies

Ethos

European Journal of Political Economy

European Journal of Research Methods for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences

Evaluation: The International Journal of Theory,
Research and Practice

Forest Products Journal

Gerontologist

History of the Family

Human Development

Human Relations

Interdisciplinaria Revista de Psicologia y Ciencias
Afines

International Journal of Action Methods:
Psychodrama, Skill Training, and Role Playing

(continued)

Table XIX.
Query results by
discipline

JDOC
65,4

616

Social sciences

SNT

SNA

International Journal of Aging & Human
Development

International Journal of Behavioral Development

International Journal of Family Therapy

International Social Work

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Journal of Adolescent Research

Journal of Applied Behavioral Science

Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

Journal of Applied Psychology

Journal of Communication

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication

Journal of Conflict Resolution

Journal of Consciousness Studies

Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice

Journal of Counseling Psychology

Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities

Journal of Early Adolescence

Journal of Economic Issues

Journal of Educational Computing Research

Journal of Family Issues

Journal of Family Violence

Journal of Gang Research

Journal of Gerontology

Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama &
Sociometry

Journal of Health and Social Behavior

Journal of Interactive Learning Research

Journal of Leisure Research

Journal of Mathematical Psychology

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Journal of Research on Adolescence

Journal of Social and Biological Systems

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships

Journal of Social Service Research

Journal of the American Statistical Association

Kolner Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Soziologie und

Sozialpsychologie

Leisure Sciences

Linear Algebra and its Applications

Marriage & Family Review

New Media & Society

Omega: Journal of Death and Dying

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Psicologia Contemporanea

Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal

Psychological Bulletin

Psychological Reports

Psychology

Psychology & Marketing

(continued)

Table XIX.

Examining

information

behavior

617

to which that growth followed disciplinary or interdisciplinary lines, whether it
reflected the network’s organizational structure, and its relationship to the cocitation of
network members. Their finding that “you tend to cite those with whom you are
cocited” was the outcome of extensive interviews, observation and data analysis with
consideration of social network ties and intellectual network ties. Perry (2003) also used
author cocitation analysis but her application of social network analysis resolved
discrepancies from a previous study. Both instances of cocitation analysis focused on
how the network developed or changed over time. Gazan (2005) overcame the
weakness of a static portrayal by creating network snapshots at four critical points in a
project. These iterations produced a set of core individuals who emerged as the central
figures across the project. Using a process perspective Bar-Ilan et al. (2006) considered
the strength of ties in a lifetime of information behavior for women struggling with
weight control. This perspective informed various stages of the information behavior
model they developed. These considerations of a longitudinal perspective add to a
small body of research expected to grow across disciplines. Future approaches could
include a focus on how networks develop and influences that stimulate change over
time.

The other research approach of interest in the current study is network attribute.

The two dominant network properties identified by Granovetter (1973, 1983) and Burt
(1992) provided the impetus for most of the studies citing social network theory:
Granovetter’s strength of weak ties often extrapolates to information seeking behavior
and Burt’s observations of structural holes yields opportunities (entrepreneurial, social
capital) or missteps from gaps in a network’s structure. The research results of these
applications are often qualifications of the original premise, extending to an interest in
understanding an individual’s cognitive approach and the contextual factors that
influence the network behavior of individuals, a full group, or an organization.

Across the disciplines, the amount of research devoted solely to Granovetter’s

theory is modest (9.9 percent, n ¼ 37). Within IS Pettigrew (1999, Babbie (1989)) tested
the strength of weak ties in a community health setting and found that nurses who

Social sciences

SNT

SNA

Research in Rural Sociology and Development

Review of General Psychology

Social Networks

Social Psychology Quarterly

Social Science and Medicine

Social Science Research

Socio-Economic Review

Sociological Methods & Research

Sociology of Education

Transcultural Psychiatry

University of Chicago Law Review

Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Arbeits- und Organizationspsychologie

Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Personalpsychologie

Zo¨lner Zeitschrift fu

¨ r Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie

Total

150

Note: SNT ¼ Social network theory; SNA ¼ Social network analysis

Table XIX.

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assist the elderly exhibited both strong and weak ties or “mixed tie attributes,”
suggesting further research “on whether mixed-tie attributes affect how that tie is used
and perceived as a source of information”. Wicks (1999) investigated the interaction
between role and information seeking when he applied tie strength to the information
networks of pastoral clergy, suggesting that membership in different social networks
affects information-seeking behavior since open and closed patterns developed in
different roles. Dixon (2005) suggests that despite the apparent lack of interest in
Granovetter’s (1983, p. 346) work within IS, exploring applications of his hypothesis
could “provide insight into why certain information sources, such as libraries or
government agencies, consistently remain underused despite their ability to provide
pivotal information to a number of people”.

The Business and Management discipline demonstrated the broadest interest in

investigating strong or weak ties (Tables XIII to XIX). Rindfleisch and Moorman (2001,
p. 14) used a sample of 106 US firms to explore the acquisition and utilization of
information in new product alliances from a strength-of-ties perspective. They found
that the assumptions of closely tied individual actors did not hold for organizational
actors and recommended a longitudinal study where “researchers could explore the
impact of informational exchange activities on managerial perceptions of competitors
and customers”. Within an organizational structure, Perry-Smith (2006, p. 98) explored
the influence of social ties on creativity, finding different aspects of tie strength. He
recommended further research on “the flow of different information types such as
advice ties, support ties, and negative ties” and suggests, “it would be helpful to study
the influence of network ties on various stages of creativity, from idea generation to
implementation, in the same study”. Balkundi and Kilduff (2006, p. 957) researched
leadership in organizations, finding that “the influence of visible leaders, both informal
and formal, is likely to be affected by network ties that may not show up at all in the
organizational chart”. From this study they suggests that “future research is likely to
focus on how small changes in network connections (by, for example, one individual)
can transform the flow of leadership throughout the whole organization, where
leadership flow is understood to include influence patterns, reputation, and status”
(Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006, p. 957). These studies demonstrate the potential of
Granovetter’s theory as an explanatory tool for information behavior scholars. They
also recognize the value of a longitudinal approach.

Uses of the structural attributes of social network theory to approach research in IS

produced a small number of studies in an academic setting involving the university
library. These studies explored strategic information management and recognized the
dynamics of networked social and intellectual capital where information sharing
occurs among trusted insiders. (Huotari, 2000; Huotari and Chatman, 2001; Huotari and
Iivonen, 2005; Huotari and Wilson, 2001). Applying concepts of strategic ties and
density measures from social network theory enabled the researchers to examine how
information is shared in a university environment. Recognizing the position of the
academic library as a strategic partner in the university’s knowledge processes placed
the library within the value constellation of a networked enterprise, incorporating the
theory of value constellation from Normann and Ramirez (1994).

Social network theory provides an avenue to explore information behavior and

build an understanding of the nature of information exchanges but the use of social
network theory may produce unexpected results. Chatman (2000, p. 6) states:

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Social network theory seemed particularly attractive because of its emphasis on sharing
within a support system of similar others. There were many reasons why social network
theory failed to shed light on the information world of my respondents. It was this theory that
produced my first critical anomaly regarding information and public behaviours. Simply put,
the anomaly challenged a central proposition of the theory: that networks exist to facilitate
resource exchange.

Challenging the fundamental purpose of a network prompted Chatman to consider
other propositions for her research on the information poor, leading to the development
of her theory on information poverty. Pettigrew’s application of Granovetter’s (1999,
2000) theory to her research of community clinics led to her theory of temporal
information grounds. This recent theory defines information grounds as “synergistic
environments temporarily created when people come together for a singular purpose
but from whose behavior emerges a social atmosphere that fosters the spontaneous
and serendipitous sharing of information” (Fisher, 2005, p. 185). As a starting point,
then, the use of social network theory provided inspiration towards challenging
conventional expectations.

Other IS studies applied social network theory in association with additional

theories as they sought to explain or reveal the information behavior of social
interactions: small world theory (Huotari and Chatman, 2001; Li-chun et al., 2006),
social capital (Hersberger, 2003; Huotari and Iivonen, 2005; Johnson, 2004; Wiklund,
1998), and role theory (Wicks, 1999).

The power of blending multidisciplinary theories and methodologies to provide a

multidimensional understanding of information environments recognizes the
complexity of human information behavior in terms of interactions between
personal and situational variables, an approach Allen (1997) described with his
person-in-situation model. This combination of social and individual variables
describes the majority of research studies utilizing the methodology of social network
analysis.

Research utilizing social network analysis is extensive and demonstrates inductive

efforts to explore individual and group behavior. As with the use of social network
theory, the use of social network analysis varies from individuals to groups of
individuals, issues and organizations with primary emphasis on structural properties.

5.3 Major focus trends
The major trends in the application of social network theory and social network
analysis include the setting or context of the research study, interest in networks as
mechanisms of diffusion, the impact of an individual’s role within a network in terms
of influence over others, use and behavior of a network when seeking or exchanging
information, and the consequence of network relationships for providing value to
individuals or groups of individuals. Underscoring these themes is acknowledgement
of the sensitivity and risks involved in identifying individuals within social network
research, while encouraging further interdisciplinary exploration of network concepts.
Many opportunities exist for IS research to contribute to the understanding of network
information behavior and engage the other disciplines.

5.3.1 Setting. The extensive application of social network theory and social network

analysis to situations considering where information behavior occurs highlights the
movement towards the inclusion of context in research studies. Research studies in the

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Social Sciences, Medicine and Health, and IS demonstrated an interest in everyday
lives. In the Social Sciences, the focus often concentrated on family relations and the
impact that close relations have on social behaviors. Medicine and Health primarily
focused on the diffusion of disease or addictive behaviors through social networks,
capturing affective influences. IS contributed a small number of ethnographic research
studies employing the social constructionist viewpoint of information practices to
identify who people chose as information sources (Johnson, 2004) and as a means of
understanding the context in which information exchange and diffusion occur among
the homeless (Hersberger, 2003).

Surprisingly, despite the variety of settings considered for IS research, libraries and

information centers went largely unexplored. Research efforts included Liu et al. (2005)
who considered co-authorship networks in the digital library research community;
Gazan (2005) exploring how designers of information and communication technologies
conceptualize and perform their work in the context of a digital library design project;
Huotari and Iivonen (2005) examining the strategic partnership between a university
and its library; Schneider and Borlund (2004) constructing controlled language and
cataloging functions, and Haythornthwaite (1996) discussing the applications of social
network analysis to library research. The opportunities for social network analysis
research in library specific contexts remain outstanding.

Organizational settings view the principles and properties of networks to explain

the function, or dysfunction of organizational structures. Research of networks in
organizations has primarily focused on the informal social networks, or friendship
networks, that individual workers form within an organization. Studies of these
networks focus on the dynamic of this cultural reality in terms of the contribution to
the successful realization of a corporation’s goals. The dimensions studied include
power, influence, conflict, crises, trust and collaboration.

One of the challenges in organizational studies is the risk of extrapolating research

results to the entire organization or making decisions based on the results when the
results were collected using an instrument that captured a static picture with the
potential for change itself.

Social network analysis often offers the researcher the opportunity to interact with

the participants in the research study. The impact of that interaction may depend on
the designated purpose of the research. Pettigrew (1999) used multiple strategies to
reduce the impact of her presence on the participants during her observations. While
blending into the environment did reduce the observer effect on participants, she
concludes, “the complexities that contextual factors bring to bear on
information-related social phenomena are tantamount to the richness that one gains
from their study” (Pettigrew, 1999, p. 815).

The application of social network analysis within organizations often involves the

identification of individuals within a workgroup, since “the collection of names of
either individuals or social units is not incidental to the research but its very point”
(Kadushin, 2005, p. 141). As with any research that involves interaction with
participants, there are ethical implications to consider when conducting a research
study.

With social network analysis, the implications may extend to considerations of job

security or loss, and ultimately to the viability of using network analysis in the field of
social network research. Cross and Parker (2003, p. 137) caution:

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Networks are only one piece of a complex puzzle, but as network thinking gains momentum
the approach could become a fad – the Next Big Thing. If this happens, social network
analysis may not be applied in a measured way. Focusing exclusively on social networks is
dangerous if people believe that optimal networks alone will lead to the Holy Grail of high
performance.

As with any form of research, it is essential to remain mindful of the implications to the
respondents and take the appropriate steps to maintain the integrity of the research
study (Borgatti and Molina, 2003). Without due respect for the process and the people
involved, social network analysis could be discredited as an appropriate vehicle for
understanding user behavior in network situations. Moreover, this loss would extend
to lost opportunities for the development of improved structures and the provision of
information services of value.

The distinction between public and private organizations raises interesting

contextual issues for social network research. Mandell (2001, p. 282) asserts, “much of
the work on collaboration through networks that has been published in the business
management literature does not apply wholesale and without revision to the public
sector”. This argument underlies the importance of viewing information behavior in
context. However, Schultz-Jones and Macpherson (2005) support a “cross-professional
exchange of network experience” since “for both sectors multiple behaviors and
strategic abilities in networks, mobilized as an operational structure to achieve a
specific purpose through common goals and objectives, have a common thrust.” The
interdisciplinary opportunities of social network research extend across multiple
contexts and reinforce the value of maintaining currency in research conducted within
various disciplines.

5.3.2 Diffusion factors. Many network studies (23.1 percent, n ¼ 34) focused on the

ease or difficulty of disseminating information, affect or resources from one person or
part of a network to another. These studies emphasized network structure and
identified constraints and facilitators to the process of spreading resources and
practices through a system. The pattern of relationships received some attention in the
IS studies with both Hersberger (2003) and Pettigrew (1999, 2000) considering the
information environment where the network structure formed and resided. Both
researchers contemplated the provision of information services in their discussion of
information diffusion. Braha and Bar-Yam (2004), on the other hand, examined the
pattern of relationships within an intricate structure of product development networks
to model the exchange of knowledge for work achievement. For IS, these few studies
provide stark contrast to the research in other disciplines.

Business and Management research studies examined the strategic and financial

implications of information diffusion within a variety of organizational groups.
Interest in communication patterns and information management directed the study of
communicating sensitive business information, disseminating project instructions, and
communicating information during a crisis. These studies provide direction and
options for influencing group dynamics. Research and development groups learn from
patterns of technology adoption and the diffusion of marketing system information for
complex products. Management groups have the opportunity to study the diffusion of
organizational practices and the transfer of leadership perceptions. Overall, studies of
the diffusion of innovation and the diffusion of knowledge provide opportunities for

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understanding the flow of information within organizations and the potential for
influencing and increasing performance and innovation.

In the Social Sciences, one education research study focused on the effective

participation and discourse through a computer network, while investigating
elementary students’ computer supported interaction. In other education settings,
research focused on the transfer of aggressive behaviour within middle school peer
groups, and the developmental implications of transferring peer group motivations
and achievements. Research on the transfer of peer group behaviors ranged from peer
influences on body image concerns, dietary restraint, extreme weight-loss behaviors,
and binge eating in adolescent girls to crime-related information transfer patterns.
Behavioral studies considered the communication patterns of striking employees,
gossip networks, and the transfer of entrepreneurial opportunity. In addition, patterns
of relationships considered who the individual knows, and to some degree the
individual’s personal characteristics as predictors of innovation.

The limited focus within IS on the process and patterns of information transfer

within social networks suggests future research opportunities, particularly for the
distribution of information services in a variety of contexts.

5.3.3 Influence. The concept of influence relates to the effect a person or group of

people has on another through sharing or withholding information. In the current
literature review, influence emerged as coalitions, strategic alliances, collaborative
ventures, and mentor associations where interaction increased access to information
that might otherwise be difficult to obtain. Business and Management research
included the social networks of researchers in business-to-business marketing and the
influence of stakeholders on organizational decisions. Coalition research included
analyzing construction project coalitions. Additionally, some studies focused on
strategic alliances and collaborative ventures among national and international firms.
Research in the Social Sciences, on the other hand, focused primarily on mentoring
situations. Most of the IS studies explored the phenomenon of influence among
interacting units by researching publication networks (n ¼ 15) to demonstrate how one
unit or person affected another. These studies included: author citation networks (Liu
et al., 2005; Li-chun et al., 2006; McKechnie et al., 2005; Olsson, 1998; Otte and Rousseau,
2002; Perry, 2003; Schneider and Borlund, 2004; White et al., 2004), journal networks
(Bollen et al., 2005; Doreian and Fararo, 1985; Leydesdorff, 2004), web networks
(Kretschmer and Aguillo, 2005; Leydesdorff and Vaughan, 2006), and web sites
(Bjorneborn and Ingwersen, 2004; Park et al., 2002).

One IS study by Debackere and Clarysse (1998) explored network influence at the

firm level, demonstrating that the macro-level network pattern in a population of plant
biotechnical organizations exerted significant influence on the micro-level phenomenon
of organizational entry to the field. Using both the perspectives of the bridging power
of weak ties and the degree to which structural holes create opportunities, the authors
explored the network dynamics of the existing organizations in the field, identifying
network prestige as a factor that lowers entry barriers.

Two IS studies viewed influence patterns in collaborative networks. Hara et al.

(2003) described collaboration among a group of scientists in a multidisciplinary
academic research center, with consideration for the social shape and impact of their
experiences. The results of a whole group survey allowed for social network analysis
with measure of centrality, reciprocity and connectivity. Coupling the sociometric

Examining

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623

survey data with the results of interview data allowed for the development of a
continuum of collaboration and identification of structural factors that facilitate and
inhibit collaboration. The changeable organizational structure and leadership
challenged the collaborative process and this finding echoes the limited research on
the impact of change factors in the social network research of other disciplines.

Haythornthwaite (1998) studied the growth of community among distance learners

enrolled in a web-based course, with recommendations for structuring subgroup
interactions at different intervals throughout the semester. This focus on the
collaboration opportunities among online participants also reflects the primary
research focus of influence in Computer Science (Tables XIII to XIX).

5.3.4 Information seeking. While all network situations could potentially enhance or

inhibit the exchange of information, a small percentage (5.1 percent, n ¼ 19) of
research studies focused primarily on the act of seeking information and the resulting
activation or creation of a network of contacts. In these studies, the definition of
information seeking is “a conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need
or gap in your knowledge” (Case, 2002, p. 5). In many ways, this research is part of a
small group of studies that operate from the perspective of examining the causes of
network structures. Borgatti and Foster (2003, p. 1000) maintain that the fundamental
distinction among network studies is “whether the studies are about the causes of
network structures or the consequences” with the bulk of studies focused on the
consequences.

The small percentage of research studies from Business and Management discussed

informal networks created by organizational members to satisfy their information
needs while the studies in the Social Sciences primarily discussed the development of
social contacts over the Internet. IS leads the number of research studies focused on
information seeking with a variety of networks created by an information need. These
studies included two situations: work and everyday life. Information seeking in the
context of everyday life (Savolainen, 1995) demonstrates the social and cultural factors
affecting the preference and choice of information sources. Bar-Ilan et al. (2006)
explored the information behavior of women struggling to maintain weight control and
Wathen and Harris (2006) examined the rural experience of women seeking health
information. In both cases, a personal network of information sources included a
variety of human, textual and digital sources activated at different points during an
ongoing process of information seeking. While these studies enlisted the aid of social
network theory or social network analysis to describe or explore the context of the
research, none of the studies describes the results in terms of a network formation. This
omission and lack of consideration minimizes their contribution to social network
behavior.

Huotari and Chatman (2001) extended the concepts developed in everyday life

information-seeking (ELIS) studies to an organizational environment, forming a
methodological framework for analyzing organizational information behavior. Within
an organizational framework, social network research described an exploration of how
managers selected individuals to serve as information sources (Mackenzie, 2005, 2003),
used critical success factors as the basis for determining how managers activate
information sources (Huotari and Wilson, 2001), and applied a strategic information
management perspective to information seeking in the pharmaceutical and publishing
sectors (Huotari, 1997).

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5.3.5 Value. A goal and consequence of social network relationships is the concept

of value, both in terms of the extent to which a social network serves a purpose and the
extent to which it meets or exceeds expectations. In this literature review, the majority
of studies considered network value and researchers explored this outcome from an
individual’s perspective or at the higher level of analysis of an entire organization. In
many studies, researchers explicitly expressed value as social capital. Lin (2001, p. 19)
defines social capital as “an investment in social relations by individuals through
which they gain access to embedded resources to enhance expected returns of
instrumental or expressive actions”. Therefore, social capital relates to the value
realized through an individual’s social relationships and extrapolates to the value an
organization realizes through the social relationships of a work group.

Research on the value of connections in social networks involved applications of

Granovetter’s (1973) strength of weak ties theory and the structural attributes of
network formations, including Burt’s thesis on structural holes (Burt, 1992, 2001).
While many of the Business and Management studies viewed the individual
opportunities arising from social networks in terms of the overall contribution to
corporate success, studies in the Social Sciences emphasized the benefit of social
support derived through social networks. In all cases, information access provided the
key to realizing network value.

The IS studies investigated social capital from several perspectives: individuals

with face-to-face contact, individuals in member-initiated online communities and
university departments. Johnson (2004) investigated the information behavior of a
random group of Mongolian residents in terms of recognizing people with better
resources than themselves and selecting them as information sources despite limited
social contact, or weak ties. The theory of social capital provided the conceptual
framework for the investigation and social network analysis provided the
methodology. Ultimately, the results connected social network theory and the theory
of social capital to explain the information behavior of this study group. Wiklund
(1998) considered the social and intellectual capital garnered within a group of doctoral
students.

Tang and Yang (2005, 2006) contributed an interesting study of a socially created

online community where the goal of the network is social interaction and the formation
of the network occurs through the contribution of emergent roles. In this study “it is the
community members, their interactions and their contributions in content which
determine the ultimate success of that community” (Tang and Yang, 2005, p. 516). This
study joins an emerging body of research in IS that explores the “ways in which social
capital may be managed with information and communication technologies (ICTs)”
(Davenport and Snyder, 2005, p. 517). The structural dimensions of social networks
provide a useful framework for future research in this area.

6. Conclusion
Despite Haythornthwaite’s (1996) identification of opportunities to apply social
network analysis to the study of the exchange of information resources, numerous
research applications remain outstanding in IS. These include:

the role of the librarian or library as gatekeeper within an information network
structure;

the ways in which structural changes affect an information network over time;

Examining

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625

how information access contributes to network development;

the ways in which network positions and structures facilitate or restrict
information delivery;

analyzing networks to maximize the range of connections and likelihood of
receiving different kinds of information;

analyzing the structural dimensions of networks to include the introduction of
information and communication technologies (ICTs); and

investigating computer-mediated communication and information systems.

Many of these opportunities relate to library and information service settings, a largely
undeveloped context for the application of social network theory and social network
analysis.

Regardless of the application, the evolutionary nature of networks remains

undeveloped. Examining how networks develop and change over time provides
research opportunities across disciplines. In addition, recognizing the complexity of
human information behavior suggests multiple ways to capturing this behavior.

The growth of research literature devoted to applications of social network theory

and analysis suggests that there is value in this approach. The derived value extends to
an understanding of how information exchanges facilitate the delivery of services. The
limits to opportunities to apply social network theory and social network analysis to
situations where individual units interact exist only in the imagination of the researcher.
With continued research on information behaviors in context, the possibilities for
developing additional concepts of social network theory exist. Information science could
advance valuable contributions to an understanding of information behavior and using
social network analysis may be a vehicle to connect with a significant body of existing
research and contribute to research in other disciplines.

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Corresponding author
Barbara Schultz-Jones can be contacted at: Barbara.Schultz-Jones@unt.edu

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