Praktyczna nauka języka — pisanie

1. Introduction
2. Paragraphing
3. Essay types
4. Style and register
5. Plagiarism: quoting and paraphrasing

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1. Introduction

This unit contains some tips on how to self-improve your writing skills and some

suggestions on how you can use the proposed techniques.

1. Writer’s block

When writing both for pleasure and for academic purposes you can sometimes come

up against something called “writer’s block”. This might be quite uncomfortable,

particularly when there is a deadline you have to meet or someone is awaiting your

written response. It is difficult enough to deal with in your native language, even

more so, though, in your academic work.

Here are some common-sensical and mostly obvious tips on how to deal with it/

avoid it.

- there is no such thing as a lost day/time in humanities. All your experiences (going

to the cinema/theatre, watching your favourite TV show, listening to music, meet-

ing friends, browsing the Internet) are going to influence the way you look at things

and enrich your perspective, so do not beat yourself up if you have a period of a

seeming non-productivity. Do not, however, let this be your excuse;

- expose yourself to English language as much as you can: watch films with subtitles

only (if the soundtrack is in English), preferably in English or no subtitles at all.

Listen to podcasts, audiofiles, read news in English; use your search engine in Eng-

lish, if possible;

- carry a notebook and something to write with you: an idea for writing, a phrase

you might find useful might come to you at times you least expect it, so be ready

to write it down. From time to time, look back at your notes and try to order them

according to what you might need them for;

- consult your ideas with your colleagues and your teachers, they might provide

some valuable feedback.

Here are some more formal tips and instructions on how to fight (and win against)

writer’s block:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/567/01/

2. Journal writing

In the times of the Internet, the old-fashioned journal writing has been replaced with

blogging, but it might still have some advantages. When deciding to write a blog in

English some of non-native speakers of the language might feel too self-conscious

about publishing their thoughts on a website, as they might be doubtful as to the

quality of their grammar/style/language use. If you do not have this kind of inhibi-

tions, take a look at the link below and, if you are already writing a blog, try to

include a section in English, or, if you have not yet tried, but would like to – do it

and think of it as an additional practice in English.

Here is a website where you can look through some blogs that might inspire you:

http://www.blogcatalog.com/

For those, who prefer more traditional methods, here are some basic tips regarding

journal writing:

http://42explore.com/journl.htm

If you decide to write a journal, which will undoubtedly benefit your writing skills

and give you more contact with English, you can ask your teacher for feedback on

what you have written.
Such writing reveals both your strong and weak points, so it might be a good idea to

consult your writing with someone of more expert knowledge on language.

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2. Paragraphing

Exercise 1.

Below are the listed features of a paragraph. Mark three of them that do not match
the definition of a paragraph.

A paragraph:
a. builds on what came before and lays the ground for what comes next
b. is never used in literary works
c. starts in a new line
d. ends without running to the next passage
e. consists of three parts: topic sentence, body and conclusion
f. deals with a particular point or idea
g. cannot consist of one sentence
h. is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing
i. should not be longer than 5 complex sentences
j. can have several points as long as they relate to the overall topic

For more revision information on paragraphs go to

http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/

pamphlets/paragraphs.shtml

Remember, the Polish term for “paragraph” is “akapit”

Exercise 2.

Dividing a text into paragraphs: under each of the texts you will find sets of words
that open a new paragraph. Only one set is correct, chose the right one.

Text 1

Here we’ll consider how transitional words and phrases (also known as transitional

expressions) can help make our writing clear, coherent, and cohesive. As we’ve seen,

a key quality of an effective paragraph is unity. A unified paragraph sticks to one

topic from start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose

and main idea of that paragraph. But a strong paragraph is more than just a collec-

tion of loose sentences. Those sentences need to be clearly connected so that readers

can follow along, recognizing how one detail leads to the next. A paragraph with

clearly connected sentences is said to be coherent and cohesive. The following para-

graph is unified and coherent. Notice how the italicized words and phrases (called

transitions) guide us along, helping us see how one detail leads to the next.

The opening words for paragraphs in this text are:
a. Here/As we’ve seen/But a strong paragraph/The following
b. Here/A unified/A paragraph/The following
c. Here/But a strong paragraph/ A paragraph/ Notice
d. Here/As we’ve seen/ A unified/Notice

Text 2

He sat back. A sense of complete helplessness had descended upon him. To begin

with, he did not know with any certainty that this was 1984. It must be round about

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that date, since he was fairly sure that his age was thirty-nine, and he believed that he

had been born in 1944 or 1945; but it was never possible nowadays to pin down any

date within a year or two.For whom, it suddenly occurred to him to wonder, was he

writing this diary? For the future, for the unborn. His mind hovered for a moment

round the doubtful date on the page, and then fetched up with a bump against the

Newspeak word doublethink. For the first time the magnitude of what he had under-

taken came home to him. How could you communicate with the future? It was of

its nature impossible. Either the future would resemble the present, in which case it

would not listen to him: or it would be different from it, and his predicament would

be meaningless. For some time he sat gazing stupidly at the paper. The telescreen had

changed over to strident military music. It was curious that he seemed not merely

to have lost the power of expressing himself, but even to have forgotten what it was

that he had originally intended to say. For weeks past he had been making ready

for this moment, and it had never crossed his mind that anything would be needed

except courage. The actual writing would be easy. All he had to do was to transfer

to paper the interminable restless monologue that had been running inside his head,

literally for years. At this moment, however, even the monologue had dried up.

Moreover his varicose ulcer had begun itching unbearably. He dared not scratch it,

because if he did so it always became inflamed. The seconds were ticking by. He was

conscious of nothing except the blankness of the page in front of him, the itching of

the skin above his ankle, the blaring of the music, and a slight booziness caused by

the gin. Suddenly he began writing in sheer panic, only imperfectly aware of what

he was setting down. His small but childish handwriting straggled up and down the

page, shedding first its capital letters and finally even its full stops:

(George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four)

The opening words for paragraphs in this text are:
a. He sat back/For whom/ Either the future/The actual writing/His small
b. He sat back/For the first time/The actual writing/Suddenly
c. He sat back/For some time/For weeks/ He was conscious
d. He sat back/For whom/For some time/Suddenly

Text 3

A reproduction of a painting nearly always comes with a full caption. For example:

Colour Plate 1 Rembrandt van Rijn, The Artist in his Studio, c.1629, oil on panel,

25x32 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, accession no. 38.1838 This gives you a

great deal of useful information, not just the artist’s name and title of the work, but

also the date when it was painted. The caption will tell you whether the artist used

oil, pastel etc, what surface he or she painted on, and what its dimensions are. The

final piece of information is the name of the collection where the work can be found.

However, I want to warn you about titles. Of course they can be helpful in telling

you what it is you should be seeing, but remember that the title by which a work of

art becomes known was not necessarily given it by the artist. The older the work,

the less likely the title is to be original and the more likely it is to be the product of

later interpretation. Information about medium will help you to imagine the effect

of the original work. This effect will depend in part on the physical form of the

original work and on the function for which it was intended. Works on paper tend

to be less expensive than works on canvas or wood. Artists will often use pencil, ink

or crayon on paper to try out ideas and details before working them up in the more

expensive medium of oil on canvas or wood. Information about size should be read

in connection with information about medium. Clearly an oil painting small enough

to be carried is a very different kind of thing from a mural occupying an entire wall.

When reproduced in a book, however, they might appear the same size. Where such

information is given, it can help you: for example, a small oil painting is likely to

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have been produced for a private purpose. A large work is more likely to have been

commissioned for some public purpose. If you keep these points in mind, they will

help you interpret the image you are looking at.

The opening words for paragraphs in this text are:
a. A reproduction/ However/Works on paper/A large work
b. A reproduction/ The caption/This effect/Information about size
c. A reproduction/However/Information about medium/Information about size
d. A reproduction/The final piece/Information about medium/Where such information

Exercise 3.

Write a short essay (3-5 paragraphs) bearing in mind the rules of division of a text into
paragraphs. Here are some suggestions of topics you might want to choose:
1. A review of a recently seen film/recently read book.
2. Your best/worst day at work/school.
3. Media influence on young people: the advantages and disadvantages.
4. Advertising: Information or Manipulation?
5. Theatre and cinema: similarities and differences.

When you have finished check if all the paragraphs match the criteria you chose in
exercise 1

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3. Essay types

Exercise 1.

Match the definitions with essay types and examples of topics for of each one. There
are 2 topics for each type of essay.

Type of essay

Definition

Example topic

1. Expository essay

2. Cause and effect essay

3. Comparison/contrast essay

4. Argumentative (pro/con) essay

a. Presents an opinion on a

subject based on reasoning and

understanding. Makes a claim or

takes a position and backs it up with

statistics, expert opinions, and other

evidence.

b. Gives directions or instructions

about how to complete a task, or

how something is done, analyses

events, ideas, explain/describe

historical events. It is an essay that

explains something with facts, as

opposed to opinion.

c. Shows the differences and/or

similarities

between two persons, places, things,

ideas, etc.

d. describes the reasons for a

given state of things or provides

information on the outcome of

events. It focuses on the question

“why?”

i. How to successfully complete a

paragliding course.

ii. Love and friendship.

iii. The results of passive smoking

iv. Should tuition fees be obligatory

at both private and state schools?

v. Life in the 1990s and 2000s

vi. Should there be a law against

advertising alcohol?

vii. The causes of acid rain

viii. How the First World War

began.

In academic writing, both essay and thesis, you need to see you work as not only

holding a proper level of language, style and register but also being logical and thor-

ough.

One of the most frequent problems of students is that they tend to forget that each

of their opinions, points needs to be supported by evidence.

In opinion writing (journals, reviews, descriptions etc.) it is acceptable to present

your own point of view or general opinions. Nevertheless, they all need to be backed

up by some evidence, be it personal experience or stereotypical opinion.

In research writing, however, such as your thesis, you need to take into consideration

whet other people – researchers, scholars, critics – have already said about the sub-

ject you have chosen. You are allowed both to disagree and agree with them. When

the first one is the case, you need to build up a logical and well-structured argument,

based in e.g. your own research that would undermine their conclusions. If you find

an opinion you agree with, you might want to use it as a source of substantiating an

argument, NEVER FORGETTING to cite your source (see a unit on plagiarism).

Here are some websites with guides for building an argument:

http://teaching.shu.ac.uk/ds/english/essayguide/contexts/contexts.htm

ß this page

provides a link to several textual examples on how to well support your argument

(the link in the bottom-right corner)

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http://books.google.pl/books?id=g86GS62M3xAC&pg=PA58&lpg=P

A58&dq=substantiating+an+argument&source=bl&ots=OIWNK4w-

9W&sig=WsbvmAJdX-KsDhloM9DA3EV6Noc&hl=pl&ei=HEm2SsiqEdeN_

AbE_oDYDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=s

ubstantiating%20an%20argument&f=false

http://books.google.pl/books?id=V3Nep2m9RsIC&pg=PA192&lpg=PA192&d

q=substantiating+an+argument+%2B+exercise&source=bl&ots=lOTThUD_

wi&sig=SZ9c46WaRywQ2oiba_i3_2lkjIo&hl=pl&ei=Q0m2So3mEM2e_gbC-

JG_DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8#v=onepage&q=&f=fa

lse

Below you will find a link to a resource that provides a series of exercises on con-

structing an argument:

http://www.usyd.edu.au/stuserv/documents/learning_centre/developingargument.

doc

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4. Style and register

Exercise 1.

From the list of features say which define informal and which match the formal
register.
a. Latin-based words
b. Simple sentences
c. Full words
d. Verb phrases
e. Noun phrases
f. Contractions
g. Objective point of view
h. Common words
i. Anglo-Saxon words (incl. Phrasal verbs)
j. Personal point of view
k. Abbreviations
l. Active constructions
m. Complex sentences
n. Passive constructions
o. Uncommon words

Features of formal style/register:

Features of informal style/register:

Exercise 2.

Look at the list of words 1-24 and match them with their formal equivalents a-x.

1. able
2. all the time
3. a lot
4. a lot of

5. always
6. amount
7. as a result
8. as good as
9. at hand, there

10. basically

11. be, amount to
12. become smaller
13. become worse
14. before

15. begin
16. better

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17. be(come) used to
18. big
19. carry out
20. change
21. deal with
22. do
23. do not
24. do without

a. many, numerous, a wide variety of, a whole range of, a wide spectrum of, an

abundance of

b. deteriorate, escalate
c. dispense with
d. address, discuss, examine
e. conduct, execute, commit, implement, perpetrate
f. be on the decline, be on the decrease, decline, decrease, diminish, dwindle, re-

cede

g. essentially, in essence, substantially
h. invariably
i. practically, virtually
j. prior to
k. be(come) accustomed to
l. major, significant, substantial
m. conduct, transact
n. capable, in a(ny) position
o. markedly, noticeably, considerably, a great deal, substantially
p. continuously, continually, constantly, perpetually
q. quantity
r. alter/alteration, modify/modification
s. consequently
t. available
u. constitute
v. fail to, omit to
w. commence
x. superior

Exercise 3.

Look at the list of words 1-26 and match them with their formal equivalents a-z.

1. end
2. enough

3. everywhere
4. fairly

5. find out
6. fitting

7. hatred

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8. have

9. if

10. in the end
11. keep (doing)
12. know

13. later

14. less and less
15. let, allow
16. like
17. Liking

18. Long

19. Look at
20. Mean

21. Money

22. More and more
23. Much

24. Need

25. Next to
26. Now

a. be aware of, be conversant/familiar with
b. consider, examine, explore, investigate, observe, scrutinize
c. considerably, substantially
d. ample, sufficient, adequate
e. contain, be equipped with, possess
f. eventually, finally, ultimately
g. predilection for sth., partiality for sth.
h. extensive, protracted, prolonged
i. ascertain, discern, discover
j. conclusion
k. to be partial of sth.
l. in the event of, in case (of)
m. ubiquitous, pervasive
n. funding, funds, resources
o. at present, at this juncture, at this moment, currently
p. continue, persist in
q. comparatively, moderately
r. increasingly
s. proper, appropriate
t. subsequent(ly)
u. involve, entail
v. animosity
w. decreasing(ly)
x. permit
y. demand, require
z. adjacent

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Exercise 4.

Look at the list of words 1-23 and match them with their formal equivalents a-w.

1. Often

2. Quick(ly)
3. Rich, wealthy

4. Right

5. Rough(ly)
6. Set up

7. Sharp

8. Show

9. Side

10. Size
11. Small

12. Therefore
13. Thing

14. Too
15. Too little
16. Too many
17. Too much
18. Try
19. Understand
20. Unneeded
21. Ups and downs
22. Very

23. Without

a. an excessive number of, a disproportionate number of
b. demonstrate, evince, manifest
c. frequent(ly)
d. rapid(ly), prompt(ly)
e. element, aspect, object, factor, consideration
f. appropriate, correct, proper
g. affluent, opulent
h. approximate(ly)
i. minor, insignificant, marginal
j. extremely, in the extreme, immensely, intensely
k. magnitude, dimensions
l. superfluous, redundant
m. attempt, endeavour, strive
n. excessive(ly), a profusion of
o. excessively, inordinately, unduly
p. abrupt, drastic
q. vicissitudes
r. devoid of

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s. establish, institute
t. appreciate
u. aspect
v. poverty
w. consequently

Here are some more tips on how to control the register with some good examples:

http://www.wikihow.com/Avoid-Colloquial-%28Informal%29-Writing

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5. Plagiarism: quoting

and paraphrasing

For basic ideas on plagiarism and how to avoid it go to:

http://wps.ablongman.com/long_faigley_penguinhb_2/31/8188/2096245.cw/-

/2096285/index.html

Paraphrasing techniques

Paraphrasing is based on retaining the original meaning without using the words it

contains.

e.g. the sentence:

The number of UK deaths associated with swine flu has risen to 61, after the first
fatalities were confirmed in Wales and Northern Ireland.

could be re-phrased:

The confirmation of the initial deaths among the Welsh and Northern Irish has shown
that the amount of people who died of swine flu in Britain increased to 61.

There are several simple techniques that can be used for paraphrasing.

I. Changing vocabulary (synonyms): rise > increase

II. Changing word class: Wales > Welsh, confirm > confirmation, etc.

III. Changing word order (voice change): UK deaths > people who died … in Britain

Exercise 1.

a. Find synonyms for words in italic. Use a thesaurus and remember about trying to

retain the correct register.

1. The Welsh Assembly said a 55-year-old woman died in hospital in Cardiff on Sat-

urday with cardiac-related problems after being diagnosed with the virus.

2. Meanwhile, the government’s policy of offering antiviral drugs to everyone with

the virus has been called into question following new advice from the World

Health Organisation.

3. Most patients infected with the pandemic virus continued to experience typical

influenza symptoms and fully recovered within a week, even without any medical

treatment.

4. The UK has stockpiled enough antivirals - the mainstay of treatment until a vac-

cine becomes available - to cover half the population.

b. Change the word class of the words in italic and then re-write the sentences.

1. Some experts have raised concerns (noun à verb) about the lack of safety data on

flu vaccines in these groups.

2. Drug company, Baxter, has announced (verb à noun) the production (noun à verb)

of the first commercial batches of its swine flu vaccine Celvapan.

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3. There are indications (verb à noun) the number of swine flu cases in England is no

longer rising (verbà noun) rapidly (adverbà adjective) and may have "plateaued",

officials have said.

c. Change the word order in the following sentences, begin as shown.

1. There are many advantages to taking precautions against the average autumn

cold.
Taking precautions ……

2. More and more people are said to suffer from the symptoms of common cold.

The symptoms of common cold …

3. It said the national swine flu helpline in England should also have been set up

sooner.
The national …

Exercise 2.

Paraphrasing a text. Combine the techniques above to paraphrase the following text.

The Brazilian government has unveiled plans to ban sugar cane plantations in envi-

ronmentally sensitive areas.

The proposal, which must be passed by Congress, comes amid concerns that Brazil’s

developing biofuels industry is increasing Amazon deforestation.

Environment Minister Carlos Minc said the measures would mean ethanol made

from sugar cane would be “100% green”.

The government agenda is becoming more environmentally friendly ahead of the

2010 presidential poll, analysts say.

The plans unveiled by Mr Minc would limit sugar cane plantations to 7.5% of Bra-

zilian territory or 64m hectares, and prevent the clearing of new land for the crop.

The proposed legislation, expected to be put to Congress next year, would also pro-

hibit the building of ethanol distillation plants in food-growing areas or in the vast

wetlands of the Pantanal, on Brazil’s border with Bolivia.

Brazil, the world’s top producer of sugar, has long championed ethanol as an envi-

ronmentally friendly source of energy but concerns have grown over its potential

hazards.

Critics have said that the spread of sugar cane plantations into areas like the Amazon

and the Pantanal has increased deforestation.

“This legislation is extremely welcome because it sends a clear signal to farmers and

to the world that the government wants to exercise control,” Paulo Moutinho from

environmental group Imazon told the AFP news agency.

(source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8262381.stm)

Remember, even if paraphrasing someone else’s words, you need to credit them both

in introducing the paraphrase and in “Works cited”/”Bibliography” section of your

work.

Quoting sources

Depending on the stylesheet your thesis supervisor recommends, there are different

ways of crediting your source. Each of them, however, demands you to credit cited

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work both in direct quotation and paraphrase. In English it is rare that a quotation

is introduced by colon (:), it is usually preceded by coma (,) if forming a part of the

text and being no longer than 3 running lines; it opens with a quotation mark (“)

and ends with one (”). If a quotation is longer, it needs to be indented (the font is

also changed).

Look at the example below to see the two variations of a quoted text.

The idea of disillusionment with adulthood is arguably one of the most frequently

recurring themes in the lyrics of the band. It could be related to personal experiences

of the lyricists were it not for the fact that Kępiński describes senile depressions

whose causes are related to the feeling of growing old.

The age when one starts to look back at and balance his/her own life usually re-

mains in connection with the breakthrough between the past and the future, from

this point on the past will definitely overweigh the future. … One will lose his/her

faith in the future, a feeling that one cannot change much in life and that it has been

closed in a sense will develop. Breakthrough occurs at different ages, it seems that in

men’s lives it occurs earlier. (Kępiński 1996, p. 49)

However awkward it may seem for people in their late 20s/early 30s to refer to

symptoms of senile depressions the band members frequently alluded to this state

of mind, “You get to 30 and look back and realize you’ve achieved nothing, you are

nothing, and you’ve got nothing coming up.”(Heatley 1998, p. 73)

The above quotations are also credited in the bibliography section as follows:

Heatley M. Manic Street Preachers. In Their Own Words. London: Omnibus Press,

1998.

Kępiński A. Melancholia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Literackie Muza 1996.

Here is some more information on quoting, paraphrasing and plagiarism. Make sure

you know the rules at work at your school and consult your thesis supervisor for

details.

http://www.collegeboard.com/student/plan/college-success/10314.html

http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/instruct/guides/citations.html