Grażyna Kubica
A good lady, androgynous angel and intrepid woman.
Maria Czaplicka – her feminist profile
1
This essay discusses the PolishBritish anthropologist, Maria
Czaplicka (born 1884), a contemporary of Bronisław Malinowski,
who like him came to England in 1910 and studied under C G.
Seligman at the London School of Economics and Political
Science. Later she worked with R.R. Marett and received her
Diploma in Anthropology from Oxford University. In 191415,
she led the Jenisei Expedition to Siberia, where she became an
experienced fieldworker and made important finds for the Pitt
Rivers Museum. While she was the first femalelecturer in
anthropology at Oxford University, she also was a tragic
figure without secure academic appointment. In 1921 she
committed suicide in Bristol where she had held a temporary
teaching position; she was only 37 when she died
2
.
Maria Czaplicka would fit to the collection of women
anthropologists edited by Shirley Ardener (1994). I do not
intend, however, to show Czaplicka’s scientific achievements
per se. Instead, I wish to analyze how she constructed her
subjectivity in her writings. She represents a time when women
were still a very conspicuous novelty on the public arena – to
be later conferred the status of “honorary men”. My aim is to
1
I would like to thank my friends and colleagues for their comments,
especially Krystyna Cech, Beata Kowalska, Krzysztof Kowalski, Marcin Lubaś,
James Urry, Michael Young, Jan Zieliński, as well as Shirley Ardener for
her inexhaustible interest in my research. Her friendly concern is always
so encouraging and helpful!
2
The immediate cause of this tragic decision was her catastrophic financial
situation and failure to be awarded the Albert Khan scholarship (Univ. of
London), which the prospects of her winning had seemed good. There is also
a hypothesis that her suicide was caused by Henry Hall’s (her Siberian
companion) marrying another women. For biographical details see: Collins
1999; Collins, Urry 1997, La Rue 1996, Kubica 2002 and 2004.
show how gender was an important factor in the early
anthropological project only to be excluded by the later
emergence of positivist models under the pretext of
objectivity. In this situation autobiographical insights that
might reveal the self of an ethnographer were suppressed in
the name of professionalism (Okely 1992, Callaway 1992).
Czaplicka’s life and writings afford us a glimpse into the
world of the self of an anthropologist before the self was
forced from the discourse.
Thus, I am interested in “engendered knowledge”, to use
Pat Caplan’s phrase (1994), exercised so successfully by
Shirley Ardener (e.g., 1975, 1984) and a group of British
scholars. I want also to benefit from American feminist
anthropology, as represented by the volume Women writing
culture (Behar, Gordon 1995). My task is a kind of “critical
movement towards home” to confront invisible processes of the
formation of the self, the practice that Kamela Visweswaran
called “homework” in contrast to fieldwork. I am, like her,
“rendering women’s subjectivity within the contexts of larger
dominant narratives” (Visweswaran 1994, 10). In the case of my
project, it is to show how Maria Czaplicka operated within
various discourses: the ethos of Polish gentryintelligentsia,
dilemmas of European feminism and the civilizing mission of
British colonialism
.
All these were intertwined with the
scientific discourse she gained access to at early stage of
her life. Science was her main and basic choice.
Writing this essay, I took the risk of combining various
languages, those of literary theory, feminist philosophy and
anthropology; the oscillation between them enables me, I hope,
to describe differentiated and evading shadows of womanhood.
Because womanhood is not, in my opinion, a homogeneous,
overwhelming category; there is no universal model of
womanhood. I am writing about a real woman who existed some
time ago and am analyzing her through constructs she created
(or recreated) of herself following or contesting culturally
prevalent definitions of womanhood (Moore 1988).
Pedigree
Maria Czaplicka was born on 25
th
of October, 1884 in Stara
Praga, a location that later became a part of Warsaw. The area
was growing very energetically then. It was very populated and
chaotically built. There were new modernistic fivestoried
buildings side by side with slum huts with shingle roofs. The
area was inhabited mainly by working class and poor Jews.
The father of Maria, Felix Czaplicki, was a master of a
Terespol railway station (WawrzykowskaWierciochowa 1959,
662). For impoverished representatives of the Polish gentry,
who had some education, working for the Railways was one of
the scarce possibilities for earning money. Felix Czaplicki
seems to have been just such a case. Probably his parents,
after losing their family estate, moved to Warsaw and tried to
furnish their children (sons) with the best education they
could afford. At that time the best meant general: gymnasium
and some years of university. Later a young man had to find
any paid position in order to provide for his family. The
Railway was a solution. This is an example of the process of
the rise of inteligentsia, a social class typical only for
Eastern Europe.
Felix Czaplicki married Sophie Zawisza and they had three
children: one son (who later became a physician) and two
daughters. They lived together with their parents whom they
had to support. The Czaplickis were probably not very well off
and moved to Russia in 1904 because Felix got a better paid
job there. The family came back a few years later and settled
down on Hoża street in the very centre of Warsaw. One can
still feel a magnificent grandeur of old Warsaw there.
It is very difficult to get any idea of Maria Czaplicka’s
home and family life. In her letters from England to a writer
Władysław Orkan (the only collection of her private
correspondence I came across) from 1910 to 1912, there is
hardly any information concerning her family (OP, JL). She did
not mention her father at all so I can suppose that he was
probably dead by then. Her constant financial problems would
support this hypothesis. A widowed mother could not help her
much. From the tone of her daughter’s writing about her it may
be derived that there was some tension between them, some
emotional distance. Perhaps the mother did not like the life
her daughter had chosen? She might have preferred her to get
married and live somewhere near home. Perhaps she even had a
great match for her? Maria would have said “no”, because she
knew that this would have meant the end for her scientific
aspirations. She opted for further education and earning a
living for herself. Or perhaps it was a totally different
scenario? A maid without a dowry could not even dream of a
reasonable marriage, so Maria did not have any other choice
but to study and find a job.
Education
It should be added here that Poland was partitioned then
and Warsaw belonged to Russia. Polish national life was
suppressed. Russian was a compulsory language of instruction
in education. An underground and clandestine system of Polish
schooling existed on every level. Alongside the Russian
university in Warsaw there was also a “Flying University”,
whose lectures were held in changing private flats. It brought
about possibility of higher education for women. However, it
did not give its pupils any kind of job qualifications. On the
other hand, when a girl wanted to study abroad, she had to
pass “maturity exam” in one of boys gimnasiums, because girls’
schools did not prepare their pupils for that and were not
entitled to do so. As an effect of the 1905 revolution and a
school strike, the situation in education and scientific life
improved. Then the “Kasa Mianowskiego”, a private charitable
foundation to promote science was established, which, in turn,
led to the creation of the Association of Higher Scientific
Courses, a quasiuniversity.
Education was still treated as a value in itself, not as a
basis for a good job. As a result future cadres of
“educational and social activists”, as they were called, were
brought up. The role did not harm the traditional model of
public activity acceptable for women outside a household. The
effect of all this was that at the beginning of the 20
th
century it was teaching that still remained the main
occupation for women of impoverished gentry and
intelligentsia’s background (Żarnowska 2000) .
The case of Maria Czaplicka reflected this universal model
very well. She attended a girls’ school (18941902), as all
young ladies did then. Later she took some courses in
pedagogy. When the family moved to Russia, she passed her
maturity exam at boys Government Gymnase in 1905 and the
teachers exam for geography – as she put in her curriculum
vitae (CzP SC). At the same time she worked as a Polish
governess. Later she attended Flying University and later
became a student of science at the Association of Higher
Scientific Courses. As a result of her ambitions and talents,
she could continue her education thanks to the “Kasa
Mianowskiego” scholarship (Sprawozdanie, 1915). Even earlier
women were given grants to do some scientific research or to
publish their findings, but Czaplicka was the first to receive
a considerable amount (900 rubles) enabling her to study
abroad. She wanted to study ethnogeography and planned to
write a book about different peoples of the world to be
published in the series “Nauka dla wszystkich” (Science for
everyone).
Independence
The younger generation of women operating within the
patriarchal system strove for more independence. In Polish
conditions of the early 20
th
century, women tried to achieve it
various ways. One of them was, paradoxically, by matrimony. A
married woman had a higher social status, she was not subject
to some customary taboos like omissions of certain topics in
drawingroom discussions, she had the possibility of
unchaperoned trips, etc. A married woman had more freedom and
her family was satisfied. That was the way of Zofia Nałkowska,
a writer and intellectual friend of Czaplicka. Zofia married a
poet, Leon Rygier.
Another way of obtaining relative autonomy was to go
abroad to study. A woman not only escaped strict family
control but also could achieve position equal to her brothers.
Thus educational aspirations went together with emancipation
from a patriarchal family (Żarnowska 2000).
For the young scholar, independence meant being alone and
earning her living, what brought constant financial problems.
In an interview in 1913 she complained: “During three years in
Warsaw I was impossibly overworked with various
secretarialships, substitutions, lessons, lectures etc. All
those paid poorly or not at all. Of course, I remember the
University for Everyone and clandestine study classes the
best” (SC, PUM). She worked as a teacher, but she was also
involved in other forms of educational activities.
Czaplicka also used to play the role of dame de campaigne
(companion to rich women). She wrote to Orkan from Ostende: “I
take baths and stay with Mrs Gloger, who is nicer to me than
Mrs. Epstein was to RygierNałkowska” (OP, JL). Apparently
this must have been quite a frequent practice for educated and
poor young ladies.
At a certain point Maria Czaplicka started to earn her
living by writing. She cooperated with Warsaw “Revival. A
sociopolitical, literary and artistic journal”, which was
coming out in the years 19101911. It was a radical weekly,
“progressive”, to use contemporary phrase, which meant:
socialistic, anticlerical, proemancipation for Jews, and
women. It contended for Polish independence and therefore had
constant problems with censors. Czaplicka published her poems
there.
In 1910 she enriched her author’s portfolio with a “novel
for young people” entitled Olek Niedziela (which could be
translated as “Alex Sunday”). She wrote it in Zakopane, a
famous health resort in the Tatra Mountains, where she spent
the whole Winter. She edited and typed the novel in the summer
that year staying in some estate where she was giving lessons
to the owners’ children. The book was published a year later
in Warsaw.
A good lady
Maria Czaplicka’s novel tells the story of a poor boy, who
wanted to learn from his early childhood. His dream was to
become reality when he was eleven years old. It was when some
young lady accepted him for free schooling she had organized
for a group of boys in her own flat. One can not learn much
about the tutoress from the novel, her appearance is not
described, her name is unknown, she is referred to as the
“Miss”.
The book focuses on the world of the pupils and is written
from their point of view – a novelty in literature for young
people then, it presents a perspective and the inner problems
and changes of one of them – Olek. He was the most talented
among them, the most sensitive and eager to learn, he used to
ask interesting questions. His family was extremely poor, his
mother was a washerwoman, and his father could only plait
baskets.
The “Miss” introduces Olek not only to the world of
knowledge, but also to the world of art. The book is in large
extent a description of the reaction of a naive boy’s soul to
beauty. The beauty of music, painting, but also – that of
nature. Olek dreams of becoming a teacher. The “Miss” wants to
prepare him to enter gymnasy. Unfortunately, she becomes
seriously ill, goes abroad for medical treatment, and leaves
Olek in the care of her unwise cousin. The cousin does not
fulfill his duty. Olek starts to work in a factory. He resents
the “Miss” that left him. One day he falls into the rollers of
a machine. “As circles that appear on water, when a sone its
thrown in it, become more and more delicate and disappear at
the end, merging with an even surface of water, as inaudibly
and almost invisibly Olek Niedziela merged with the machine”
3
(Czaplicka 1911, 123).
The book perhaps lacks an enthralling plot, but there are
some wellaimed sociological insights . The worlds of rich and
poor are impenetrable to one another. The “Miss” who wanted to
be a mediator, belongs inevitably to her own class, she is not
interested in her pupils’ lives, does not even want to
3
All translations from Polish are of my authorship, consulted with Krystyna
Cech and Aleksander Jakimowicz.
understand them. She dragged Olek to her world, provoked his
new aspirations. The life he had been living till then was now
impossible. The boy became a hybrid unable to survive. The
responsibility lies on the side of the tutoress and her sphere
and not the pupil.
Undoubtedly the novel is the augury of the future
anthropological talent: the gift of curious observation, the
skill of accurate description, the most exact, the closest to
the facts. But it is not only the way of writing what is
relevant here, but also the respect to the people written
about and an attempt to understand their position. What the
“Miss” from a noble family cannot conceive (and even does not
try to), the author presents and analyzes. The author tries to
see the world through the eyes of a workingclass poor boy,
tries to inspect the processes launched in his soul by the
contact with other world and shows the plight of all that if
not thoroughly cared by agents involved. What is it if not an
anthropological sensitivity? Very modern, very uptodate by
our standards.
The earliest construct of womanhood in Maria Czaplicka’s
writings is the “Miss” from a novel Olek Niedziela. She is an
embodiment of a myth of a noble women: sensitive, emotional
and sympathetic to the poor, extending them help and
enlightenment. Another version of this myth was the symbol of
“Polish Mother,” well rooted in our culture and which became
very powerful especially after defeats of Polish uprisings
when many men died or were sent to Siberia and these were
women who had to take on male roles (a similar situation took
place in Britain only during the Great War). Thus, the “Polish
Mother” served as educator of future generations of fighters
for independence, guard of national traditions and depository
of the Nation’s most laudable virtues. The role of “Polish
Mother” did not consist so much in giving birth to future
generations in the biological sense as rather in giving
cultural birth to conscious Poles (for whom Poland’s
independence was the main goal). Therefore the “Polish Mother”
did not necessarily have to be a biological parent, because
she was an educator and a curator (cf. Walczewska 2000).
It is very difficult to asses to what extent the figure of
the “Miss” resembles Maria Czaplicka herself. We know that in
the novel she described her own social milieu and that she was
also involved in clandestine teaching, so it is quite likely
that she depicted her own experiences. The narrator of her
novel sympathizes with the “Miss”, but at the same time
criticizes her position severely.
Thus if we could extract the construct of “right”
womanhood from the novel, it would be a good lady deprived of
some limitations of her sex (weakness, irrationality) and
class (egoism, irresponsibility) but enriched with the idea of
enlightenment and socialism. It may well be that Czaplicka
used to be a regular, good younglady but over the course of
her education and political activity she deconstructed this
model.
How may we view this construct from today’s perspective?
The symbol of “Polish Mother” (and a good lady) may be seen as
a hindrance to emancipational aspirations of Polish women.
They were not individuals with their needs but only parts of
the nation, the goals of which were the most important
(Walczewska 2000). In fact this perspective has only recently
undergone change, enabling modern Polish feminism to be born.
Similarly, the intelligentsia’s (not only the noble women’s)
mission to enlighten lower classes (which was not far from
civilizing lower races) has only recently terminated with the
radical changes of Polish society.
Androgynous angel
Yet another figure looms from Maria Czaplicka’s poems. Her
lyrical production was very modernistic. One can easily see in
it the need for investigation of the Self, fascination with
the problems of sex and love and her own corporeality.
In her poetry one can trace a basic, Cartesian dichotomy
between body and mind, a conflict even more dramatic because
the author is a woman, traditionally located on the side of
the corporeal. In “On my journey” she deals with longing for
“bodily intoxication”, this would be paradise, it is possible
and close, but reason, which is the “chill of inertness”,
points out that crossing through paradise’s door would bring
subordination. Reason orders independence and works out all
achievements singlehandedly (“to have everything, take
nothing”). Thus the coexistence of these contrasting elements
is impossible: when reason wins, the body loses. The right is
on the side of reason.
Her problems with her own corporeality are best
characterized in the following fragment:
“On the summit of pride and knowledge withers my young body.
Dull is the flame of my eyes, less sweet is their expression,
On the summit of act and reason little is a smile for my face –
the heart knows nothing of shivers,
and caresses”
(OP, BJ).
Choosing reason means abandoning the body. A sacrifice. The
price paid for knowledge.
In her poems we can find a trace of John Locke’s concept
that every human being, in every individual case, has to prove
his own humanity. Women can show, that they are equal to men
if they appear rational (Hyży 2003). Maria Czaplicka, like
Mary Wollstonecraft earlier, pays homage to reason, rejecting
emotions and striving for selfcontrol, and, like Simone de
Beauvoir later, exhibits a lack of confidence in her own body
and in effect – rejects it (Wollstonecraft 1975; de Beauvoir
1949).
It is characteristic of this mode of thinking to define
body and mind as exclusive categories; the body is what the
mind has to reject to maintain its integrity (Grosz 1994, 6).
Czaplicka’s suicide can be seen as the plight of this manner
of thinking, a deadly threat to a human being, a woman.
Czaplicka’s case can also serve as an example of
ideologising women’s roles. Their work within the household
was presented as “sacrifice” or “service”. Later, the
educational aspirations of women were formulated within the
same idiom: as devotion to science. On the altar of “reason
and knowledge” they laid their “young bodies”.
Czaplicka writes in her poems that she is “a human being
a woman” (a very Wollstonecraft like), that she is “free, far
away from fear”, strong, possessing pride, knowledge and rich
imagination, but also a “young body”; she has “fortresses of
her own power” gained through work; her forehead is “proud and
selfassured”; the whole world bows before her; she can seize
everything she loves, but reason boggles at doing this. Those
sentiments are best seen in the following fragment (“The truth
about my soul”):
“I posses only a woman’s body
but have an abnormal soul:
what is a gift for both sexes
I have to stand in myself.
I have a man’s hungry, unsatisfied eagerness,
and steadfast bravery,
as well as female vacillation and tenderness
and permanence of emotions. (...)
I surpass you with my womanhood,
yet do not cede in manliness –
and derisively proud of this monstrousness
I poison myself with my own laughter”
Her female attributes are: corporeal shape, emotionality
and imagination. But she also has a man’s strength, activity,
bravery and rationality. She is a man and a woman at the same
time. However ironically, she recons herself to be perfect.
The coexistence of male and female traits in her had to be
quite noticeable. She was a model for an androgynous angel
painted by Jan Rembowski in Zakopane in 1910. The picture is
an illustration of a poem by Juliusz Słowacki, a great
romantic poet, “Angels are standing on country fields”. Its
message (and that of the painting) was that Poles should
parlay their sufferings into a military action in order to
regain independence. Czaplicka posed for a main figure of a
dominating, winged, athletic angel with a Greek profile and
long hair, holding a sword in outstretched arms. A British
journalist of “Daily Sketch” five years later wrote about her
similarly that she was “a very charming and brilliant person,
not at all the Oxford blue stocking in appearance, and her
capacity for assimilating facts and figures of economics and
ethnology is little short of marvelous” (SC, PUM, 74). Here we
have again: female charm and male brains.
Mircea Eliade analyzed the androgyne motif, describing its
various incarnations: literary, mythical and ritual. He
connected them with the unification of oppositions and the
Mystery of the Whole, coincidentia oppositorum. In archaic
cultures an androgyne was regarded to be a model
(archetypical) image of the perfect human being. Eliade also
discusses Balzac’s fantastic novel Séraphita, which deals with
“un être étrange d’une beauté mobile et mélancholique” (Eliade
1962, 121). The creature is qualitatively different from the
rest of mortals and the difference stems from the very
structure of its existence. A woman takes it for a man, while
a man for a woman. It displays evidence of unusual erudition
and it surpasses normal humans in its talents; it is the
perfect human being.
Androgyny has been a frequent theme in feminist writings.
For example Virginia Woolf stressed that a great mind is
always androgynous (Woolf 1984, 9197). Similarly, Elisabeth
Badinter strove for coexistence of male and female traits
within any human being, and for free expression of these
elements (cf. Janion 1996).
Postmodern feminism points out that the concept of
androgyny is based on a synthesis of features defined as male
and female (exactly as Czaplicka did). But “male” traits
(rationality, objectivism, autonomy) are connected with the
rejection of the female body and differences. At the same time
“female” traits (empathy, care, emotional responsibility) are
seen only as epiphenomenal to the structures of male dominance
(cf. Bator 2001).
Let us return to Czaplicka’s poems: their lyrical object
is not happy, she is not an incarnation of harmony, she is –
as Séraphita – melancholic, because she cannot communicate
with mundane mortals. A lover noticing a “wrinkle between her
eyebrows”, that discloses the “world of her thoughts,” starts
to “examine the bottom of her knowledge like a rival”. He
prizes more her “corrupt charm” than her mind. Therefore, she
is going to “close the depths of her eyes” and will give him
the delusion that he is her “master and king”. The poem has a
symptomatic title: “Eternal Woman”. Love brings non
satisfaction for the woman, she has to hide her soul, because
a man does not want to sympathize with her but to dominate.
She will let him feel like this “bowing her proud forehead
like a meek bindweed”. A bindweed is a symbol of traditional
femininity.
It is not to be wondered at Séraphita’s melancholy she
is sentenced to erotic nonsatisfaction. The case shows that
gender is not that much a characteristic of an individual but
rather a trait of an interaction (West, Zimmerman 1991). It
was contact with a man that caused the remarks of “a human
being – a woman” about her “nature”. It was man who packed her
into a still category of womanhood that did not suit her. The
cultural construct of gender made her think about herself as
having male and female traits together. She saw this enriching
but a man viewed this as threatening his dominant position.
Thus “a human being – a woman” started to pretend to be a
bindweed, to play a role of an Eternal Woman.
Das EwigWeibliche zieht uns hinan [The Eternal Feminine
draws us upward] is the last line of Faust by Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe. The phrase seemed to be one of popular bon mots of
the time. Malinowski writes about das EwigWeibliche very
often in his diaries
4
. With it he tries to define the erotic
attraction of some women. But he does not describe themselves
but rather their influence on him. According to Czaplicka the
symbol of Eternal Feminine meant female physical attraction
(“corrupt charm”) strengthened by the delusion of male
domination (“bowing forehead”). Thus she deconstructed another
myth.
Maria Czaplicka’s literary subjectivity revealed an
androgynous coexistence of male and female characteristics.
But they were not treated as equally important. She had a
woman’s body and a man’s reason, but the right was on the side
of reason. Her intellectual friend, Zofia Nałkowska, adopted a
totally different strategy. Her literary program consisted of
identifying womanhood with sexuality and nature, but granting
it positive value. The difference between man and woman should
4
I refer here to the Polish edition of his diaries, which contains also
parts never published in English. Malinowski 2002.
not be leveled, but – on the contrary – stressed. Nałkowska
wanted equality in difference, stressing the female side. She
proposes “ostentatious, triumphant acceptation of her own sex”
(PodrazaKwiatkowska 1993, 39). The writer, as if arguing with
Czaplicka, wrote in her diary: “We will never become men
altogether, albeit we will stifle our female traits – thus it
is better to develop them and become more and more eminently
and specifically women” (Nałkowska 1975, 117).
We may wonder why these two friends adopted totally
different strategies of constructing their subjectivity. It
can be traced back to the relationships with their mothers:
comforting or conflicting. Another reason was certainly the
choice of discourse. Nałkowska as a writer had better chance
of taking advantage of her womanhood, while Czaplicka’s
choice of science lead to rejection of her body and her
gender. We can see in these two women examples of contemporary
feminisms: liberal (Czaplicka) and postmodern (Nałkowska).
Intrepid woman
In the early summer of 1914 our heroine lead a scientific
expedition to the Jenisei valley. There were four of them at
the beginning: two anthropologists (Czaplicka and an American
Henry Hall), an artist (Dora Curtis) and an ornithologist
(Maud Haviland). Only the first two remained there for the
whole year.
The young fieldworker published her book My Siberian Year
in 1916. It describes her expedition and work among the Tungus
and the Samoyed. It was not a scholarly report (it was never
finally published) but a traveler’s log, a part of the series
My Year appearing in Mills and Boon (now more known for their
romantic novels). This literary project is more useful for my
purpose, because we can observe the way in which the authoress
constructs her own image.
Let us begin with the figure of Henry Hall, to whom the
book is dedicated. One could expect that he would play the
role of a natural partner to the author and would accompany
the reader all the time. But it is not the case. Hall appears
by name once or twice. One can only suspect his presence when
she writes “we”. Generally, Czaplicka writes in a manner that
gives the reader the impression that she is alone with the
natives. Hall is presented rather as a shadow, a person whose
presence we have to deduce rather than someone who imprints
himself into others’ heads. It was certainly Maria who was the
stronger partner in the relationship. But the psychological
aspects of the couple and their reversed roles do not exhaust
the problem.
The authoress describes in her book, in accordance with
the genre’s fashion, her various adventures, more or less
dangerous, funny or unsuspected. One of them was an expedition
to collect mammoth bones. They (her and Hall) went first by
boat, and later by foot working their way through the swamps
of the tundra. It took them several hours, sustained by
biscuits and some chocolate. Czaplicka does not complain or
boast, just reports; she does elaborate on the role of their
native guide. She informs that “the natives are not fond of
walking” and therefore the guide underestimated their
“capacities as pedestrians” (Czaplicka 1916, 47), expecting
them to resign early. Thus he could have earned his thirty
shillings easily. Instead they happened to be tough and
persistent, so the expedition managed to arrive at the site
(which, however, did not yield much of a mammoth).
The story about them getting lost in the purga (blizzard)
was very dramatic. When their guide stopped their sledges and
announced that he did not know where they were, a fit of
hysteria struck Michikha (her Tungus dame de compagnie, as she
used to call her), which Czaplicka commented as a “wasteful
expenditure of the energy” (122). She found a thermos flask
with warm cacao and poured some for Michikha. When she wanted
to drink herself, the “contents were frozen hard”. The guide
went to find some help and they stayed at the spot. The
authoress wrote: “I was bitterly cold, I was sore with
weariness, but most of all I was hungry”. She became obsessed
with thinking about the reindeer as warm blood and reeking
flesh. She was ready to stick one of them with her pocket
knife. Then the guide came back with good news, but she only
thought about him as a possible helper in the slaughter. In an
hour they were in a warm chum, were she ate a huge amount of
venison roasted over the fire, while Michikha treated herself
with raw meat.
There are numerous references to the authoress’ hunting
and shooting, such as the case when in Turuhansk a boy ran
into to her place and wanted her to follow him and shoot a
quail his father had found.
One can also find another type of story, such as one about
inspecting native tombs and nearly being caught redhanded by
the natives, or another one about boiling human bones in a
kettle and joking that making soup of somebody’s grandmother
should be done more cautiously (it was Maud Havilland’s gag in
fact only reported by Czaplicka).
Alongside the stories present in the book, I have to note
those that are absent; these are about: weakness, illness,
emotions, doubts, inertia, passivity. Let us consult other
members of the expedition. Dora Curtis wrote to Miss Penrose
of Somerville College about Czaplicka’s physical strength:
“She has amazing powers of recovery, and on land she seems
able to endure more than a normally strong person. Sometimes
she astonishes me with the miles she walked on the tundra
which is, I think, the most difficult ground in the world.
Every step one takes one is almost up to one’s knees in bog. I
have known her walk thirtyfive versts with only a piece of
bread and some chocolate to sustain her and at the end appear
unfatigued. What I fear for her is that she can accomplish
these feats because she has great spirit but afterwards she
pays for them dearly” (CzP, SC). The same author wrote also
about a strange and dangerous illness Czaplicka suffered
earlier, during their journey on the steamer boat: “She
developed alarming symptoms. She was in great pain in her back
and side, was frightfully sick and could eat nothing. Miss
Haviland and I had to nurse her night and day, when we arrived
at Golchikha she was fairly well and more or less remained so
all the time” (CzP, SC, 22.10.1914)). During her journey she
was also seasick and vomited blood (Collins 1999).
Thus, we have a more differentiated picture and we will be
able to find out the construct of the Siberian traveler’s
subjectivity more easily. She presents herself as strong as a
man, behaving as a man – playing a role of a white man. She
was not only stronger than the natives, she was also cleverer.
In the story about purga, she was calming a hysterical native
woman, she gave her warm drink first, and in the end she was
ready to kill an animal. She was after all a European man who,
in extreme conditions, would act instinctively to survive.
Thus we have here: strength, wit, active attitude, male
instinct, but also care of the weaker. We have to add several
“scientific” features – rationality, dedication and an
unprejudiced, scholarly approach. Her reasonable stance
consisted also of the ability to see good native arrangements.
For instance, she praised educating children not by
suppression but rather through experience (“let the children
see life as it presents itself to their elders”, 89); or she
described their different sexual morality: a married woman may
have a lover provided she does not leave her chum.
At a certain point a characteristic footnote appears
concerning her presence at a native court; she could attend
such proceedings because she was not a Tungus woman (165). We
can presume that the footnote was added in the process of
editing. For the authoress, it seemed to be pretty obvious. In
the case of a white woman “out there” it was her race that
mattered more than her sex.
If we can find anything female in Maria Czaplicka’s book,
it is rather the manner in which the story is told. It is said
that “men’s travel accounts are traditionally concerned with
What and Where, and women’s with How and Why” (Robinson 2001,
x). In the case of the Siberian story that How meant, for
instance, a very detailed, lengthy description of the garment
she wore during her winter expedition. It consisted of woolen
Jaeger underwear and several layers of native fur uniforms. It
was not the crossdressing of early travelers James Clifford
(1997) wrote about but a necessity of the climate
5
. Worth
mentioning here is that she was wearing a man’s native dress,
or rather she did not have a woman’s additional frock.
Her description included pointing out the scent of
reindeer, which permeated everything or reporting the need to
change the European standard of cleanliness. Thus she
described the Siberian wilderness not only through the
dangerous adventures in which she took, but also by things,
being “closer to the body” in strict and metaphorical sense of
the phrase.
5
Even today reindeer fur is still regarded the best protection against cold
what Nikolai SsorinCzaikov and Aimar Ventsel, who carried out their
researches there, were positive about.
Generally speaking, the role of Traveler (Discoverer,
Fieldworker) was one of the most “male” roles, it personalized
the concept of control over nature, conquering the
unconquered, knowing the unknown. Edward Said saw this lying
at the foundation of the orientalist discourse (Said 1978).
The traveler was the embodiment of energy, activity, strength
and reason. There was no room for weakness, illness or doubt.
The problem still remains whether Czaplicka’s male profile
was simply the further process of her own masculinization, or
whether it resulted from the logic of her choices or the
grammar of her discourse. Or, to put it differently: was she
fashioning herself as a man, or did some structural factors
play an important role in the process.
For comparison, let us review an example of another of
Czaplicka’s contemporaries, namely Karen Blixen. Her book Out
of Africa
6
was not published until the thirties but she went to
Kenya in 1914 (the same time that Czaplicka went to Siberia
and Malinowski to New Guinea). Blixen’s magnificent literature
is not only “male” in a very similar fashion to Czaplicka’s
book, but was also published under a male pseudonym – Isak
Dinesen. The author apparently did not suffer any discomfort
from writing under a male name, she simply was a man there:
she ran a farm, hunted lions and took care of the natives. In
her book she also conveys some explanatory insight: “The love
of woman and womanliness is a masculine characteristic, and
the love of man and manliness a feminine characteristic, and
there is a susceptibility to the southern countries and races
that is a Nordic quality” (Blixen 1954, 24).
I would venture to generalize the above remark and say
that a man is to a woman as whites are to natives (and we can
incorporate in this relationship both fascination and
6
Note that the Sydney Pollack film of the same title is not an exact report
of the book. There are many biographical details added from other sources.
subordination). Edward Said also reported the similarity
between the image of an Oriental and a woman. A white woman in
colonial conditions was cast in the role of a dominated white
and whites held a privileged position – politically and with
respect to civilization. The evolutionary theory provided
scientific justification to the system (cf. Urry 1993).
Baroness Blixen’s book was probably the first popular
description of Africa that presented more than just exoticism
and hunting adventures – the world of its native inhabitants
and white settlers against the background of the natural
rhythms of the continent. She was a good observer because she
was at the same time a man and a woman, so she could better
scrutinize the external world. Female anthropologists often
raised this point and Audrey Richards contended that “women
make better anthropologists than men” (in Caplan 1994, 79).
They have simply a better structural position. They can study
both the world of women and that of men. Women benefited from
colonial system but they produced alternative accounts of the
imperial presence in colonized countries (Mills 1993).
This is all observable in Czaplicka’s case. She was not
only a white traveler but she was also a scientist and these
roles were mutually supportive. She herself perceives the
world “out there” and the natives from a dominant position
(however mild): she owns the desirable rubber shoes, she has a
gun and she walks by foot better. She also has her dame de
compaigne. She has the moral right to inspect native tombs and
cook their bones. Yet, the dominant position is also a
guarantee of her safety as fieldworker (cf. Clifford 1997). At
a certain point she reports her conversation with Michikha:
“Once she remarked, jestingly, that if anything happened to us
in the tundra she would come into possession of my aluminum
boxes, fursand warm clothing. I knew the Tungus well enough
not to be at all impressed by the hint of disagreeable
possibilities I knew she meant to convey. Yet, although I
never resorted to threats of any kind in my dealings with the
natives, I could not refrain from giving her a reminder of the
fact she knew quite well that we were under official
protection” (76). Michikha doubted that any army would come
into the tundra and capitulated only at the white woman’s
suggestion that soldiers may come by airplane.
Here we can see that Czaplicka in fact negotiates her
dominant position which is not evident for her partner. Only
the threat of a military action works. So in fact that is
English reading public who shares the author’s assumption of
the cultural superiority of the Europeans, not the natives.
They are not afraid of her, they want to cheat her all the
time, they make use of her and her resources. They do not feel
inferior. It is the travelerfieldworker who perceives them as
such.
We know that the role of Western Traveler resulted from
(or used) a certain grammar of identity: “Orientalisation
constitutes self and other by negative mirror imaging: ‘what
is good in us is lacking in them’, but it also adds a
subordinate reversal: what is lacking in us is (still) present
in them’” as formulated by Baumann & Gingrich (forthcoming).
The book analyze circumstances under which the grammar could
cease to work. I wanted to show rather how gender adds another
dimension to this structure.
On her return to England, Czaplicka exercised the role of
an intrepid woman. In my archival research I came across a
menu of a “Women explorers’ dinner” held in the Lyceum Club in
London to which Czaplicka and her anthropological colleagues:
Miss FreireMarreco and Miss Murrey, together with Mrs.
FlindersPertie were invited (LP, CUL). The event took place
in January 1916. In the scrapbook of clippings concerning
public appearances of our heroine, we can find dozens of
occasions she delivered lectures about her expedition
(“Through Arctic Siberia with my camera”) in Britain and
America (SC, PUM). So the uniform of a British womanexplorer
fitted Czaplicka quite well and thus was she perceived.
James Urry pointed out “that intrepid women of the 20
th
century were "victims" of class, wealth, status and the perils
of hypergamy which left the daughters of the wealthy unable to
find a suitable marriage partner. Unmarried by their mid20s,
they were condemned to spinsterhood, a strange sort of non
productive but not necessarily nonsexual womanhood. With
money they could indulge their interests but these were often
best indulged away from the strict eye of Victorian society.
So these women who were not quite women (given the preference
for marriage and reproduction in the definition of womanhood
of the period) were permitted to indulge themselves in men's
pursuits and often foreign adventures which led some to
science and ethnography” (private letter). Yet, Czaplicka was
another case. She was not a rich spinster who was able to
indulge her scientific interests. She was an impoverished
Polish intellectual who tried to make anthropology her
profession. And it was in this striving for the
professionalization of anthropology for women that she finally
became a victim. But it is yet another story.
Here I would only stress that the role of a white woman
traveler in the colonies was different from the marginalized
(however conspicuous) role of an intrepid woman back in
Britain.
*
*
*
In my essay, I have attempted to show the process of self
articulation of a feminist subject, the process that was
carried out against cultural and interpersonal backgrounds,
and within various great narratives of the time. It also
demonstrates how fluid, heterogenic and variable the subject
is and that the woman often is a place of conflict, or she
sees herself as such.
Maria Czaplicka was the embodiment of Mary
Wollstonecraft’s ideal woman: strong in body and mind, a slave
neither to her own temptations, nor to her family. She was
more successful than her predecessor, yet only in one thing:
her suicide.
I hope that my essay has enabled understanding of motives
of that desperate gesture. These were sufficient. In fact the
logic of all discourses in which she participated, led in that
direction. The Polish noble conviction that suicide is better
than loss of class – to start with, through the scientific
rejection of body, or early feminist mimicking men. In all of
these models there was no room for poverty, weakness, emotions
or doubts. Those traits could find some room in the models of
traditional femininity (good lady or eternal woman) but these
she had deconstructed earlier. She had found herself in a
deadly trap.
Czaplicka resembles Olek of her novel. She was, like him,
dragged into a world of science, she opened her mind to the
beauty of rational argument, but she was not given conditions
for further development. She became, as Olek, a hybrid, and
she was, as him, smashed by the mechanism of the modern, dull
world.
Manuscript sources:
CzP, SC
Czaplicka Papers, Somerville College Archive, Oxford,
UK
HP, PUM
Hall Papers, Pennsylvania University Museum, USA.
LP, CUL
Lindgren Papers, Cambridge University Library, UK
OP, JL
Orkan Papers, Manuscript Collection,
Jagiellonian Library, Kraków, Poland.
SC, PUM
Scrapbook of clippings concerning M. Czaplicka,
Pennsylvania University Museum, USA.
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