Topics in Medicine and Surgery

Clinical Approaches to Analgesia in Ferrets
and Rabbits

Matthew S. Johnston, VMD, DABVP (Avian)

Abstract

Pet rabbits and ferrets are increasingly presented to veterinarians, and new de-
mands are placed on veterinarians to manage pain in these species. Relatively little
data exist regarding the efficacy of analgesics in these animals. Rabbits and ferrets
exhibit different behavioral and physiological responses to pain, and an under-
standing of the normal behavior of these species is critical to pain assessment.
Although acute pain is relatively easy to identify, signs of chronic pain may be more
subtle. Occasionally, simple husbandry corrections can help alleviate painful
chronic conditions. The prevention of pain by minimizing tissue trauma with a
gentle surgical technique and preemptive analgesia is critical when dealing with
rabbits and ferrets in the clinical setting. Many of the same analgesic techniques
and drugs used in dogs and cats can be extrapolated to rabbits and ferrets, though
some of the drugs have specific indications and contraindications. Discussions of
the clinical use of opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, local anesthetics,
ketamine, and tramadol in rabbits and ferrets are presented. Reference to the
current literature is made where possible. In addition, insights gained from the
author’s experience with the clinical use of these drugs in rabbits and ferrets are
presented. Copyright 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Key words: Rabbit; ferret; pain; analgesia; opioids; nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs); ketamine; tramadol

ver the past 10 to 15 years, the standard of
care for the treatment of small and exotic
mammals has increased. Parallel to this has

been a significant increase in attention to veterinary
pain management in both the clinical and research
arenas. Unfortunately, there are a limited number of
publications addressing pain management strategies
in pet small mammals, such as rabbits and ferrets.
Much of the literature addressing pain and its man-
agement in rabbits and ferrets originates from the
realm of laboratory animal medicine. However, as
rabbit and ferret ownership increases, veterinarians
are being asked to provide the quality of care af-
forded to more traditional pet species.

There are several excellent reviews on analgesia in

small mammals.

1-3

However, none of these reviews

focus on rabbits and ferrets, and none are written
from the standpoint of these animals as pet species.
The goal of this article is to present a clinical ap-
proach to pain management in ferrets and rabbits.

From the James L. Voss Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Colorado

State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523
USA

Address correspondence to: Matthew S. Johnston, VMD,

DABVP (Avian), Assistant Professor of Zoological Medicine,
James L. Voss Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Colorado State Uni-
versity, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA.
E-mail: msjohn@lamar.colostate.edu

Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol 14, No 4 (October), 2005: pp 229 –235

229

Wherever possible, reference to the published liter-
ature will be presented; however, because of the
paucity of such information, much of the informa-
tion presented here will be drawn from the author’s
own experience in treating pain in rabbits and fer-
rets.

Recognition of Pain

In some circumstances, it is not difficult to recognize
when a rabbit or ferret is in pain. Stimuli, such as
surgery or tissue trauma, that cause pain in other
animals are assumed to cause pain in these species as
well. Though this concept seems simple, in a survey
of British veterinarians published in 1999, only 22%
of veterinarians administered some form of analge-
sia to small mammals in the perioperative period.
Additionally, veterinary surgeons were more likely to
administer analgesics to rabbits than to ferrets.

Though surgical pain should be easy to identify,
some stimuli that cause pain in ferrets and rabbits
are more difficult to recognize, and an understand-
ing of the unique physiology and behaviors is impor-
tant. Adequate pain management is complicated by
the fact that many veterinarians who are presented
only occasionally with rabbits or ferrets are unfamil-
iar with the behavioral subtleties of these animals.

Ferrets and rabbits could not be any more differ-

ent from a physiological and behavioral standpoint.
Ferrets are strict carnivores and predators. They are
often boisterous and gregarious, even when in an
unfamiliar environment such as a veterinary hospi-
tal. Rabbits, on the other hand, are a strictly herbiv-
orous prey species. Behaviorally, they are generally
quiet, reserved, and can be quite anxious when in an
unfamiliar territory. Familiarity with the normal be-
haviors of ferrets and rabbits will help the practitio-
ner gain insight into the abnormal behaviors associ-
ated with pain. It is important to note that some of
behavioral abnormalities associated with pain states
may not be specific for pain. Rather, they may also be
observed with other disease processes and should be
used as part of the clinical assessment of an animal,
rather than being used as sole indicators of pain.

Pain-related behaviors in ferrets include prefer-

ring inactivity, staying curled in a ball, and exhibiting
aggressive biting behavior or teeth-bearing when dis-
turbed. Ferrets with visceral pain may have a de-
creased appetite and may demonstrate bruxism
when presented with food. Inadequate postoperative
analgesia in a ferret may be associated with shivering
in the presence of a normal body temperature.
Other signs of pain in ferrets include a bristling of
the tail fur, so that the tail resembles a pipe cleaner,

half-closed eyelids, focal muscle fasciculations, high
pitched-vocalization or grunting when handled,
lameness, and general malaise.

The most easily identified behavioral indicator of

pain in rabbits is anorexia. Rabbits are normally
grazing animals that eat continuously. In the pres-
ence of pain, this behavior ceases. Painful rabbits will
also grind their teeth, especially when visceral or
dental pain is present. Though most rabbits in pain
will choose to sit motionless in a far corner of a cage,
some may demonstrate periods of rapid and uncon-
trolled locomotion and struggling when handled.
Painful rabbits may vocalize or exhibit a decreased
respiratory rate that is characterized by a pro-
nounced nasal flare and deep breathing pattern.
This is in contrast to the very rapid respiratory pat-
tern, characterized by short, shallow breaths seen in
nonpainful rabbits. The painful rabbit appears un-
kempt because of a lack of grooming and may avoid
rearing up on its hind legs to accept treat items, if
this is part of its normal behavioral repertoire. Epi-
phora and serous nasal discharge are sometimes
present in rabbits that are experiencing severe, acute
pain.

Acute and Chronic Pain

As with individual animals of more common pet
species, it is generally easier to recognize the signs of
acute, rather than chronic, pain in ferrets and rab-
bits. It is important to note that acute pain can arise
in conditions that do not involve surgical or trau-
matic pain. Thus, attention to the need for analgesia
should be provided in these cases. As an example,
otitis interna is an acute infectious/inflammatory
medical condition that is common in rabbits. This
condition is associated with significant inflammation
and, as such, is likely responsible for clinically signif-
icant pain. Although some may ignore the analgesic
needs of rabbits with this condition, it is the author’s
experience that rabbits with this condition benefit
clinically from the administration of analgesic drugs,
specifically nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs). In rabbits, ileus leads to gastric and cecal
dilation, which activates nociceptive fibers associated
with the stretch receptors in the gastrointestinal
tract. A similar pain pathophysiology occurs in fer-
rets with gastrointestinal foreign bodies or tricho-
bezoars. Both conditions lead to acute abdominal
pain, and appropriate treatment is indicated when
these conditions are diagnosed. In rabbits, several
opioids decrease painful behaviors after colorectal
distention,

suggesting that drugs of this class are

useful for managing pain associated with disease

230

Johnston

processes that involved distension of the gastrointes-
tinal tract.

Conditions that lead to chronic pain are more

difficult to recognize in ferrets and rabbits. Behav-
ioral changes indicative of chronic pain can be ob-
tained from a thorough history provided by the care-
taker. Neoplasia, arthritis, and dental problems are
three very common causes of chronic pain in ferrets
and rabbits. Though some of these conditions can-
not be cured, the quality of life of the pet can be
greatly increased when analgesia is provided. The
alleviation of pain can often be provided by correct-
ing inappropriate husbandry, making pharmaco-
logic intervention unnecessary. For example, geriat-
ric rabbits with stifle and coxofemoral arthritis may
benefit from a heavily bedded cage, whereas ferrets
with chronic periodontitis may be kept comfortable
when eating soft, as opposed to hard, solid food.

Prevention of Pain

Attention to gentle surgical technique can lead to a
reduction in tissue trauma and associated inflamma-
tion that will result in reduced activation of the
nociceptive (pain) pathways. The physiologic pro-
cesses underlying nociception are initiated with tis-
sue damage regardless of whether an animal is anes-
thetized. General anesthesia does not eliminate the
neuronal processes in the peripheral and central
nervous systems (CNS) responsible for pain. Nox-
ious surgical stimulation can lead to CNS changes
that are exhibited as painful behaviors on recovery
from anesthesia.

In general, the “preemptive” administration of

analgesics is associated with more successful pain
management than administration of analgesics in
response to pain.

In addition, the preemptive or

presurgical administration of analgesics generally re-
duces requirements for general anesthesia during
the surgical procedure. For these reasons, preemp-
tive analgesia should be a part of the anesthetic
regimen for all rabbits and ferrets undergoing pro-
cedures that may lead to postoperative pain.

Analgesics and Their Application in
Ferrets and Rabbits

Table 1

presents a summary of the dosages of anal-

gesics used in rabbits and ferrets.

Opioids

The use of opioids remains a major component of
analgesic therapy, particularly in the treatment of

moderate to severe acute, postsurgical, or traumatic
pain. Opioids exert their effect by inhibiting the
transmission of nociceptive (pain) stimulation in the
dorsal horn of the spinal cord, activating descending
inhibitory pathways, inhibiting supraspinal afferents,
and causing a decrease in the release of neurotrans-
mitters in the spinal cord.

Opioids commonly used

in ferrets and rabbits include butorphanol, bu-
prenorphine, morphine, hydromorphone, oxymor-
phone, and fentanyl.

Although some practitioners are wary of adminis-

tering this class of drugs because of the potential for
adverse side effects such as sedation, respiratory de-
pression, and ileus, the beneficial analgesic proper-
ties of these drugs, in the majority of cases, far out-
weigh the potential for the development of these
adverse effects. In the author’s experience, ferrets
are especially sensitive to the sedative and respiratory
depressant effects of opioids, which suggest that the
lower end of dosage ranges and careful monitoring
be used with this species when administering opi-
oids. Opioid-induced ileus in rabbits is of particular
concern; however, pain-induced ileus is much more
difficult to treat than that associated with the admin-
istration of opioids. Usually, the institution of force
feedings and adequate fluid therapy is enough to
counteract the reduction in motility that is observed
after the administration of an opioid. In addition,
different opioids have differing effects on gastroin-
testinal motility, providing the practitioner with the
option of selecting an opioid that carries with it a low
risk of producing ileus, should this be of concern.

Opioids are classified as mixed agonist-antago-

nists, partial agonists, pure agonists, and pure antag-
onists. Pure antagonists will not be discussed here,
because they are used primarily to reverse agonist
activity and have no inherent analgesic properties.
Three different classes of opioid receptors are rec-
ognized:

␮, ␬, ␦. The ␮ receptors are further subdi-

vided into

␮-1, ␮-2, and ␮-3 subgroups. In mammals,

␮-1 and ␬ receptors are the primary receptors re-
sponsible for analgesia.

The most commonly used mixed agonist-antago-

nists are butorphanol and buprenorphine. Butor-
phanol has agonistic effects mainly at

␬ receptors,

with minimal to no

␮ effects, hence its classification

as a

␮ antagonist.

The pharmacokinetics of butor-

phanol in rabbits has been described. A 0.5 mg/kg
dosage administered intravenously is associated with
a half-life of elimination of 1.5 hours. The same
dosage administered subcutaneously has a half-life of
elimination of just over 3 hours.

The pharmacoki-

netics of butorphanol in ferrets have not been de-
termined. Butorphanol is suitable for the treatment

Analgesia in Ferrets and Rabbits

231

of mild to moderate pain in rabbits, but the fre-
quency of administration makes it impractical for
many situations. The author uses this drug primarily
for its sedative effects in ferrets, because the analge-
sic effects seem limited in this species.

Buprenorphine is classified as a partial

␮ agonist

and

␬ antagonist. It binds strongly to the ␮ receptors

and, because of this, can be difficult to reverse.

For

this reason, the author does not like to use bu-
prenorphine preoperatively. Buprenorphine, like
butorphanol, is suitable for management of mild to
moderate pain. Unlike butorphanol, the analgesic
effects of buprenorphine seem to last quite a bit
longer, though the pharmacokinetics in ferrets or
rabbits are not known. Clinically, the analgesic ef-
fects appear to persist for 6 to 10 hours after subcu-
taneous administration to both rabbits and ferrets. It
has been suggested that behaviors attributed to pain
in rabbits are not diminished after the administra-

tion of buprenorphine.

Transmucosal absorption of

buprenorphine occurs in cats,

and the author has

successfully used this route of administration in fer-
rets. Transmucosal absorption of buprenorphine de-
pends on the pH of the saliva, suggesting that ani-
mals with similar digestive physiologies (cats and
ferrets), and hence oral pH, should respond simi-
larly.

Morphine is the prototypic opioid to which all other

opioids are compared. It is very inexpensive and is
often the sole opioid administered in veterinary prac-
tices.

The author rarely administers morphine system-

ically, other than as a premedicant to rabbits and fer-
rets. This is largely because of the large array of poten-
tial side effects, especially respiratory depression in
ferrets and induction of ileus in rabbits. However, epi-
durally administered morphine can be an excellent
way to provide analgesia for abdominal and hind limb
procedures in both species. Epidural or spinal mor-

Table 1. Dosages of Analgesic Drugs for Ferrets and Rabbits. (Note that many of these

dosages are based on clinical experience and extrapolation of published dosages for other

species. It is the responsibility of the attending veterinarian to monitor for adverse effects

associated with administration of these drugs.)

Drug

Ferret

Rabbit

Butorphanol

0.1-0.4 mg/kg q2-4h IV, IM, SC

0.5 mg/kg q2-4h IV, SC

0.1-0.2 mg/kg/hr IV CRI*

Buprenorphine

0.01-0.03 mg/kg q6-10h IV, SC, TM†

0.01-0.05 mg/kg q 6-10h IV, SC

Morphine

0.2-2 mg/kg IM single dose

preoperatively

0.5-5 mg/kg IM single dose preoperatively

0.1 mg/kg epidurally

Hydromorphone

0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV, IM, SC q6-8h

Oxymorphone

0.05-0.2 mg/kg IV, IM, SC q6-8h

Fentanyl

20-30

␮g/kg/hr IV CRI* during

anesthesia to reduce volatile
inhalant concentrations

Not recommended because of induction of

severe ileus

1-4

␮g/kg/hr IV CRI* for analgesia

Meloxicam

0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC, PO q24h

0.1-0.5 mg/kg q12-24h SC, PO

Lidocaine

⬍2 mg/kg SC

4.4 mg/kg epidurally

Bupivicaine

⬍1.5 mg/kg SC

1.1 mg/kg epidurally

Ketamine (analgesic)

0.5 mg/kg IV before surgery

␮g/kg/min IV CRI* during surgery

␮g/kg/min IV CRI* for 24 hours
postoperatively‡

Tramadol

No dose available

10 mg/kg PO q24h

*Constant rate infusion.
†Transmucosally—administer directly into space between molars and buccal mucosa.
‡Must be combined with an additional analgesic agent such as an opioid to provide adequate analgesia.

232

Johnston

phine is known to attenuate postoperative pain re-
sponses in ferrets and rabbits.

11,12

For more complete

and immediate analgesia, a local anesthetic such as
lidocaine or bupivicaine may be combined with the
morphine and administered epidurally. The analgesic
effects of epidurally administered morphine last ap-
proximately 12 to 24 hours. The dosage of morphine
administered epidurally is much lower than the dose
required for systemic administration. Thus, the adverse
effects associated with systemic administration are vir-
tually eliminated.

The procedure for lumbosacral epidural punc-

ture in ferrets and rabbits is similar to that described
for dogs and cats,

except that there is rarely a

definitive “popping” sensation when the interverte-
bral ligaments are punctured and the epidural space
is entered. In rabbits, the spinal cord continues cau-
dally into the sacral vertebrae, so the potential for
accidental puncture of both the dura and arachnoid
membranes during lumbosacral epidural injection is
higher.

In this situation, cerebrospinal fluid is seen

in the hub of the needle, and half of the volume of
drug that was intended for epidural administration
should be administered. This reduction in the
amount of administered drug reflects the need for a
larger dosage of drug during epidural administra-
tion because of the significant uptake of drug from
the epidural space before it diffuses into the sub-
arachnoid space. This has not been a clinical prob-
lem in the author’s experience with ferret epidural
injections (

Fig 1

Hydromorphone and oxymorphone are very sim-

ilar opioids. Currently, hydromorphone is signifi-
cantly less expensive than oxymorphone, so it is used
more frequently in veterinary practice. The analgesic
effects of both are similar to morphine, but both

have the advantage of fewer negative side effects.

Both drugs have been used extensively by the author
in both ferrets and rabbits, with few negative side
effects. With the exception of anecdotal clinic re-
ports, there are no data describing the pharmacoki-
netics of either drug in either species.

Both hydromorphone and oxymorphone can be

used as premedicants to provide preemptive analge-
sia, postoperatively to manage moderate to severe
pain, or as primary analgesics after trauma or in the
treatment of painful medical conditions. In ferrets,
both drugs do cause profound sedation, making as-
sessment of analgesia difficult. In both ferrets and
rabbits, subcutaneous injection appears to provide
approximately 6 hours of analgesia.

Fentanyl is a very short-acting, potent pure

␮ ag-

onist with analgesic effects similar to morphine. The
effects of fentanyl last less than 30 minutes after a
single intravenous injection.

Fentanyl is used in fer-

rets by the author both intraoperatively as a constant
rate infusion (CRI) to decrease the requirement for
inhaled anesthetics and as a CRI to provide analgesia
for moderate to severe pain. A fentanyl CRI is the
author’s treatment of choice in the provision of
postoperative analgesia in ferrets. Fentanyl can also
be administered with a transdermal delivery system
(fentanyl patch). This mode of delivery has been
evaluated in rabbits. Although therapeutic plasma
concentrations are obtained with a 25-

␮g/hour

patch, loss of body weight does occur.

This obser-

vation correlates with the author’s experience with
either transdermal or intravenous administration of
fentanyl in rabbits. Rabbits receiving fentanyl have a
severely decreased appetite, and the management of
fentanyl-induced ileus is challenging. For these rea-
sons, the use of fentanyl in rabbits cannot be recom-
mended.

NSAIDs

NSAIDs have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-
pyretic effects. Because they are effective for both
acute and chronic pain and have relatively few side
effects, NSAIDs are the most commonly used anal-
gesics in veterinary medicine. NSAIDs exert their
analgesic effects by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxy-
genase, leading to a reduction in tissue inflamma-
tion and an increase in the threshold of activation of
peripheral nociceptors.

16,17

It should be noted that

no safety or efficacy studies are available for any
NSAIDs in either rabbits or ferrets, so most of our
knowledge of these drugs is based on clinical expe-
rience and extrapolation of knowledge gained from
other species. NSAIDs are contraindicated in ferrets
or rabbits that are pregnant, have hepatic or renal

Figure 1.

Epidural injection in a ferret. Note the flexed position of

the hind legs which allows for maximal opening of the lumbosacral
space.

Analgesia in Ferrets and Rabbits

233

dysfunction, have known gastrointestinal ulceration,
or are in shock or have other conditions limiting
organ perfusion.

Many NSAIDs have been used in rabbits and fer-

rets throughout the past 10 to 15 years. Today, the
most commonly used NSAID for analgesia in rabbits
or ferrets is meloxicam. This increase in the use of
meloxicam is primarily a result of its relative safety,
ease of administration, and apparent effectiveness.
Meloxicam is a cyclooxygenase-2 selective NSAID.
Cyclooxygenase-2 selective NSAIDs have fewer side
effects that are usually gastrointestinal in origin
when they are observed. It is available as a palatable
liquid 1.5-mg/mL solution (Metacam; Boehringer
Ingelheim, St. Joseph, MO) that is readily accepted
by ferrets and rabbits. Owing to the apparent sensi-
tivity of ferrets to certain NSAIDs, caution should be
used with long-term administration of meloxicam.
Clinical experience suggests that meloxicam is safe
to use for short-term administration. Any ferret or
rabbit on a long-term NSAID regimen should have
plasma liver enzymes, blood urea nitrogen, and cre-
atinine levels monitored periodically to ensure that
toxicosis is not occurring. Rabbits seem to tolerate
NSAIDs and meloxicam, in particular, very well. The
author has personally used meloxicam in numerous
rabbits with chronic painful conditions (dental root
overgrowth, arthritis, neoplasia) for long periods of
time at doses higher than that for dogs with apparent
clinical efficacy and no changes in plasma biochem-
istry values or gastrointestinal signs. However, until
further studies on safety and efficacy are performed,
it remains prudent to use the lowest possible clini-
cally effective dose.

Local Anesthetics

Local anesthetics such as lidocaine and bupivicaine
are also commonly used in veterinary practice. Local
anesthetics provide regional anesthesia by reversibly
blocking the transmission of nociceptive stimulation
from nerve endings or fibers. Local anesthetics can
be used topically, via direct infiltration into soft tis-
sue containing nerve endings, intra-articularly (not
practical in ferrets or rabbits), intravenously, or epi-
durally.

Care must be taken to avoid the adminis-

tration of toxic dosages of these drugs when they are
used to treat small animals such as rabbits or ferrets.
During subcutaneous administration of a local anes-
thetic, one should always aspirate to ensure that the
drug will not be accidentally administered intrave-
nously. Practically, for bupivicaine and lidocaine, the
author always administers less than 1.5 and 2 mg/kg
respectively, to avoid toxicosis. When used epi-
durally, bupivicaine may lead to motor weakness in

the hind limbs for up to 12 hours postinjection. This
motor weakness can be agitating to rabbits and may
lead to increased postoperative morbidity. For this
reason, the author uses bupivicaine epidurally in
ferrets only. One of the author’s preferred uses for
local anesthetics is as a line block before surgical
incisions. For abdominal procedures, a 2.5-in, 22-
gauge spinal needle with the stylet removed is used
to infiltrate the subcutaneous tissue with lidocaine
before incision. Care should be taken not to acci-
dentally puncture the abdominal wall and viscera
when performing this technique.

Ketamine

Ketamine is known primarily for its sedative proper-
ties. Ketamine is used frequently by the author in
both ferrets and rabbits as a premedication. Re-
cently, the administration of a ketamine CRI has
been used to augment intraoperative and postoper-
ative analgesia. Ketamine has been shown to act as
an analgesic by antagonism of the excitatory N-
methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the CNS. N-methyl-
D-aspartate stimulation has been shown to mediate
central sensitization of the CNS.

This activity of

ketamine has not been confirmed in either rabbits
or ferrets, suggesting that ketamine alone is not an
acceptable analgesic in most instances. However, a
ketamine CRI may allow a lower dosage of an opioid
or other analgesic to be administered.

Tramadol

Tramadol has recently become popular in veterinary
medicine as an analgesic agent for treatment of mild
to severe chronic pain. Its popularity stems from the
fact that it is efficacious in certain circumstances, is
not controlled, and is very cost-effective. The mech-
anisms of action of tramadol are not completely
understood, but it does appear to have both opioid-
like properties as well as serotonin and norepineph-
rine reuptake inhibition.

Though its use in ferrets

and rabbits is not described in the published litera-
ture, the author has used tramadol with apparent
clinical efficacy in rabbits with osteoarthritis for
which NSAIDs are not a good option. It should be
noted, however, that tramadol is extremely unpalat-
able when compounded, so strong flavoring agents
should be used to maximize acceptance of the drug.
Ideally, practicing veterinarians should work with a
licensed compounding pharmacist to find the flavor
combination that works well. The author has had
good luck with suspension of crushed tablets in an
oral compounding agent flavored with nonalcoholic
piña colada mix. The use of tramadol in ferrets has
not been reported or evaluated.

234

Johnston

Conclusions

Clearly, much work remains to assess the efficacy of
existing analgesics in rabbits and ferrets. Some of the
impetus for this work will come as rabbit and ferret
ownership increases and veterinarians are called on to
consider the analgesic requirements of individual ani-
mals placed in their care. Until this species-specific
knowledge is obtained, the practicing veterinarian is
encouraged to pay heed to the treatment of pain in
these species, attend to behavioral signs of pain, and
use the knowledge we have gained from other species
in the establishment of pain management strategies.

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Gaynor JS: Other drugs used to treat pain, in Gaynor
JS, Muir WW (eds): Handbook of Veterinary Pain
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Clinical Approaches to Analgesia in Ferrets and Rabbits

Johnston 2005 Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine

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