Effect of sensory education on food preferences in children
C. Reverdy
a,*
, P. Schlich
b
, E.P. Köster
c
, E. Ginon
b
, C. Lange
b,**
a
Pancosma, Le Grand Saconnex, Switzerland
b
Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, UMR6265 CNRS, UMR1324 INRA, Université de Bourgogne, Agrosup Dijon, F-21000 Dijon, France
c
Centre of Innovative Consumer Studies (CICS), Wageningen, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 August 2009
Received in revised form 8 December 2009
Accepted 15 March 2010
Available online 23 March 2010
Keywords:
Sensory education
Children
Food preferences
Complexity
Intensity
a b s t r a c t
During an evaluation of the effects of a French sensory education program for 8–10 years old school chil-
dren, an experiment was carried out to investigate the influence of the program on the development of
children’s preferences for stimuli differing in arousal potential (higher complexity and/or intensity).
An experimental group (n = 101) who participated in the education program and a control group
(n = 102) who did not, rated liking for five stimuli differing in arousal potential in each of three product
categories (mashed potatoes, fruit yoghurts and compotes) at three moments: just before (T0) and after
(T1) the education program and 10 months later (T2). Although initially both groups showed the same
increase in liking for more arousing stimuli in two foods, indicating that exposure to more arousing stim-
uli alone sufficed, whereas the effect of the education program was only shown in the further extension of
this change at T2 in the experimental group.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In humans, as in all other omnivores, food choice is a predom-
inantly learned behaviour. Apart from an aversion for bitter
and an attraction to sweet substances that seem to be inborn
(
Ganchrow & Menella, 2003; Steiner, 1974
) all other taste prefer-
ences are learned. Odour preferences are also acquired by learning
that starts in some cases even before birth (
). Furthermore, it has been shown that preferences
formed in infancy and early childhood may have long-lasting
effects on later food choice behaviour (
Very diverse learning mechanisms such as flavour–flavour and
flavour–nutrient conditioning (
), imitation of parents and peers and parental education prac-
tices (
) are involved in the acquisition of food prefer-
ences. The influence of ‘‘mere exposure” (
) on the
appreciation of novel food by children was investigated by
. She came to the conclusion that the effect was mainly
due to the dissipation of food neophobia (reluctance to taste new
foods). The efficacy of an exposure-based approach to overcome
eating resistances has been supported in experimental studies with
schoolchildren (
Loewen & Pliner, 1999; Pliner & Stallberg-White,
). In a study carried out in primary schools, 10 daily exposures
to the taste of an unfamiliar vegetable (raw red pepper) signifi-
cantly increased children’s liking and consumption of the vegeta-
ble (
Wardle, Herrera, Cooke & Gibson, 2003
). However, with
repeated exposure, children can either learn to prefer and con-
sume, or dislike and reject foods depending on the social contexts
in which the foods are eaten and the physiological consequences of
their consumption (
). There are also good arguments to
consider mere exposure theory as a special case of more general
motivational theories (
). In this connection,
attention has also been given to the possible role of stimulus com-
plexity and ‘‘motivational learning” in the development of food
preferences. Based on motivational theories (
Dember, 1964; Dember & Earl, 1957
;
) experiments
were carried out that confirmed the role of arousal and perceived
complexity as one of the factors in the development of food prefer-
ences during repeated exposure (Köster, Couronne, Léon, Lévy, &
Marcelino, 2002; Lévy & Köster, 1999; Lévy, MacRae, & Köster,
2006; Porcherot & Issanchou, 1998). As predicted, stimuli that
were originally less liked because they were more complex than
the level of stimulus complexity the subjects liked most, became
more appreciated with repeated exposure, whereas stimuli that
were less complex than the optimally preferred one became
less appreciated with exposure. Nevertheless, other authors
(
Sulmont-Rossé, Chabanet, Issanchou, & Köster, 2008; Zandstra,
de Graaf, & van Trijp, 2000; Zandstra, Weegels, Van Spronsen, &
Klerk, 2004
) demonstrated the fragility of these effects that may
0950-3293/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:
10.1016/j.foodqual.2010.03.008
*
Correspondence to: C. Reverdy, PANCOSMA, 6 voie-des-Traz, CH-1218 Le Grand
Saconnex, Switzerland. Tel.: +41 22 929 84 33; fax: +41 22 929 84 95.
**
Correspondence to: C. Lange, CESG, 15 rue Hugues Picardet, F-21000 Dijon,
France. Tel.: +33 380 68 16 12; fax: +33 380 68 16 32.
E-mail addresses:
(C. Reverdy),
(C. Lange).
Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
Contents lists available at
Food Quality and Preference
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / f o o d q u a l
easily be affected by other differences between the stimuli than
perceived complexity alone, such as differences in caloric content
(
) or sweetness of the food products (
Although the learning mechanisms described are indeed very
diverse in nature, they all have in common that they are forms of
implicit non-intentional learning and that they result in largely im-
plicit and unconscious food preferences and habits. This may be
one of the reasons why such habits are highly resistant to efforts
to change them by interventions that are based on conscious and
rational argumentation. Obviously, explicit knowledge alone has
little effect on behaviour that is driven by implicit habits and de-
sires. In France, a different approach has been developed in the
form of a school program (Classes du goût) for 9–10 years old chil-
dren (
Puisais, Mac Leod, & Politzer, 2002; Puisais & Pierre, 1987
),
providing a combination of explicit learning about sensory percep-
tion and implicit learning through actual sensory experience with
food (both novel and traditional). This education program for
school children has been used in several European countries, e.g.,
in Sweden (
). It is the aim of the program
to teach young children to become well-informed consumers with
awareness of the quality and differentiation of foods with regard to
smells, textures and tastes. Children’s awareness is developed by
awakening their interest and curiosity in foods by exercising their
senses.
reported that, after the program, children’s
interest in food quality was higher and their ability to describe sen-
sory properties of food was better than that of a control group, but
since no measurements were conducted to establish a baseline le-
vel, group differences could not be excluded as an explanation for
this result.
Sune, Lacroix, and de Kermanec (2002)
compared chil-
dren who attended the Classes du goût program with their non-
trained peers and with adults on the sensory characterization of
chocolate and found that despite the education, children described
the chocolate in their own way and so did adults. In Finland,
Mustonen, Rantanen, and Tuorila (2009)
studied the effects of
the Classes du goût with children aged from 7 to 11 years old. They
showed an improvement in the identification of tastes and odors,
and in characterizing foods, while there was no difference in the
performance of the control group.
In Dijon, France, a 15 months follow-up study was started with
school children to track the influence of the program on the devel-
opment of food preferences, neophobia, food description and odour
categorization. Half of children received 12 lessons (Classes du
goût) and the other half only performed the same baseline- and
follow-up measurements as the first group. The effects of the sen-
sory education were studied with sensory tests conducted in the
laboratory. The effects of the program on food neophobia have
been reported elsewhere. It was shown that neophobia was tempo-
rarily reduced by it, but that this effect was lost after 10 months
(
Reverdy, Chesnel, Schlich, Köster, & Lange, 2008
The present paper reports the results of the evaluation study
with special attention to the relative roles of two arousing proper-
ties (intensity and complexity) of the stimuli in the development of
preferences. Although during life the liking for intensity usually
decreases, whereas that for complexity increases, both these fac-
tors play a role in the arousal raised by stimuli at a given moment
in the life cycle.
To this end, five variants differing in level of arousal potential
were formulated for each of three product ranges. Three of these
varied in stimulus complexity and three varied in intensity, while
one stimulus occupied the middle position in both series. The par-
ticipants were asked to rate the hedonic value of the variants at
three stages, an initial pre-rating (T0) before the sensory education
period, a post-rating (T1) just after the sensory education period
and a final rating (T2) 10 months later. A preliminary experiment
was devoted to the measurement of the arousal potential of the
stimuli. The perception of the developed variants in terms of their
stimulus arousal potential was validated with a separate group of
subjects. In line with
who stated that the arousal
potential of a stimulus depends on the degree of novelty, the de-
gree of complexity and the intensity of the stimulus, measure-
ments of familiarity, complexity, and intensity were used to
characterize the arousal potential of the variants.
A first hypothesis, stating that the arousal potential will in-
crease with both the added intensity and complexity of the stimuli,
was tested in this preliminary experiment.
Three other hypotheses were tested in the main experiment.
According to the second hypothesis it is to be expected that the
subjects will initially show a preference for the least complex and
intense variants as predicted by the theory of Berlyne on specific
exploratory behaviour.
The third hypothesis predicts that the sensory education of the
‘‘Classes du goût” will lead to an increase in appreciation for the
more complex variants and thus will corroborate the theory of
Dember and Earl that predicts a positive shift in the optimal com-
plexity level of the participants under the influence of exposure to
more complex stimuli.
Finally, a fourth hypothesis predicts that the effect of sensory
education on preference will be long lasting (still present
10 months after the end of the sensory education period).
2. Materials and method
2.1. Products
A range of stimuli with increasing arousal potential in each of
three different food categories (mashed potatoes, drinkable yo-
ghurts, and compotes) was established for use in the main experi-
ment by varying both complexity and intensity and was tested in
the preliminary experiment. The selection criteria of the product
categories were based on the following characteristics: (1) to-
gether the products had to compose the equivalent of a complete
meal, (2) the products had to be easily modifiable by the experi-
menter and (3) they had to be appreciated by most children. Apart
from the products already mentioned, that were supposed to vary
in arousal potential by complexity and intensity, tomato sauces
that only varied in familiarity (three levels) were also tested, but
the results are not included in the present paper because the arou-
sal potential of these products was not based on the same
principles.
+
T
ast
e int
ensit
y (
I)
I-C-
I+C-
IC
I+C
+
I-C+
Flavour complexity (C)
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the rules of formulation of the five products.
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
795
To this end, five variants differing in level of arousal potential
were formulated for each of three product ranges. Three of these
were varied in stimulus complexity and three varied in intensity
(see diagonals in
), while one stimulus occupied the middle
position in both series. Starting from a base product (mashed pota-
toes, grapefruit yoghurt and apple compote), five such variations
were prepared for each product by adding basic tastes and differ-
ent flavours that were more or less surprising to French people
(see
2.2. Subjects
A total of 203 school children aged from 8 to 11 years were di-
vided into two groups each consisting of four primary school clas-
ses: an experimental group (101), that took part in the sensory
education and in a pre- and a post-tests, and a control group
(102) that only took part in the pre- and post-tests. A Student’s
t-test revealed no significant difference between the two groups
for the variable age (t = 0.58; p = 0.4454), and a Chi square test re-
vealed
no
significant
difference
for
gender
(
v
2
= 0.1297;
p = 0.7188). A total of 92 experimental subjects and 95 control sub-
jects were present at the first and the second test stages and only
83 experimental subjects and 83 control subjects were present at
all three test stages (T0, T1 and T2) due to different personal cir-
cumstances. Moreover, some of the subjects did not participate
in the hedonic evaluation of the yoghurts or compotes due to po-
tential food allergy problems.
Six extra classes of almost 25 children with same age and gen-
der distribution as in the main study were recruited to take part in
the preliminary experiment.
Permission to execute the experiments with the full coopera-
tion of the teachers was obtained from the responsible authorities
and the parents of all participating children gave their written
consent.
2.3. Experimental design
All sessions took place at the Centre des Sciences du Goût in a
room with separate booths that were equipped with a computer
screen and children responded using the mouse. All questionnaires
were prepared with FIZZ software (Biosystèmes, Couternon,
France).
2.3.1. Preliminary experiment
Since classical descriptive analysis is not well adapted for
children we chose a paired comparison test in order to assess the
children’s perception of the level of the arousal potential of each
variant, taking the dimensions familiarity, intensity and complex-
ity into account.
Each range of products was evaluated by two different classes
twice.
During the first session, the children were asked to answer
three questions: which sample do you know best? (familiarity);
which sample is the most intense? (overall intensity); which sam-
ple contains the highest number of tastes? (complexity). During
the second session, children were first trained to recognise the
basic taste of the products they had to evaluate later with the help
of basic taste solutions (saltiness for mashed potatoes, bitterness
and sweetness for the drinkable yoghurts and sourness and sweet-
ness for the compotes). After this training, the children received
the pairs of products and were asked to answer the questions:
which sample is the most surprising? (complexity); which sample
is the sweetest/saltiest/most bitter or most sour one? (taste inten-
sity). They were instructed to taste the two samples of each pair
again before answering each question. The presentation order of
the 10 pairs followed a Williams’ Latin square balanced for order
effect (
MacFie, Bratchell, Greenhoff, & Vallis, 1989
2.3.2. Main experiment
2.3.2.1. Description of the hedonic measurement. Both groups per-
formed sensory tests before (T0) and after (T1) the sensory educa-
tion period. In addition, in order to assess the effect of the
education over time, these tests were repeated after a 10 months
interval (T2). The comparison of the measurements at T0 and T1
or T2 makes it possible to evaluate the persistence and/or further
development of the effects of the sensory education over time. If
the education programme is effective, the changes should be larger
for the educated group than for the control group.
Over three sessions, the sensory tests measured the level of the
children’s food neophobia, their ability to categorise and to de-
scribe the sensations perceived while eating food and the prefer-
ences and choices for several ranges of products varying in
sensory and complexity aspects. In this paper, only the procedure
and results concerning the evaluation of the preference for the
products described above will be presented. It should be noted that
liking was always the first question the children were asked to re-
spond to at each stage of the experiment (T0, T1 and T2).
Six sessions were organised during the three stages (T0, T1 and
T2) in order to evaluate children preference and choice. They were
held at lunchtime and the children were invited to take part in a
meal together with their classmates (maximum 32 children). After
a macedoine served as a starter, and three different tomato sauces
served with three meatballs, the five samples of mashed potatoes,
the five samples of drinkable yoghurts and then the five samples of
compotes were served sequentially one at a time. For each product
Table 1
Composition of the products.
I
C
I+ C
I C
I
C+
I+ C+
Mashed potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Potatoes
Flavours
Celery
Celery
Celery
Nutmeg
Nutmeg
Basic taste
Not very salty
Relatively salty
Moderately salty
Not very salty
Relatively salty
Drinkable yoghurts
Grape fruit
Grape fruit
Grape fruit
Grape fruit
Grape fruit
Flavours
Orange
Orange
Orange
Peach
Peach
Basic taste
Not very bitter
Relatively bitter
Moderately bitter
Not very bitter
Relatively bitter
Relatively sweet
Not very sweet
Moderately sweet
Relatively sweet
Not very sweet
Compotes
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Apple
Flavours
Mango
Mango
Mango
Ginger
Ginger
Basic taste
Not very sweet
Relatively sweet
Moderately sweet
Not very sweet
Relatively sweet
796
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
category, the presentation of the samples followed Williams Latin
squares balanced over children for order and first-order carry-over
effects. Care was taken to maintain for each child the same presen-
tation order of the variants at each experimental stage (T0/T1/T2)
in order to be able to compare them and measure changes without
contamination by possible order effects. The children were asked
to rate their liking on a seven point structured hedonic scale, la-
belled ‘‘very bad” (left) ‘‘bad” ‘‘relatively bad” ‘‘I don’t know” ‘‘rel-
atively good” ‘‘good”, ‘‘very good” (right).
2.3.2.2. Description of the education program. The education pro-
gramme for the experimental group consisted of 12 lessons in
the classroom of one and a half hour each, spread over a period
of 4 months between the two measurements at T0 and T1
(6 months). These lessons were adapted from ‘‘Les classes du goût”
(
gives an overview of the main
characteristics of these lessons.
2.4. Data treatment
For the preliminary experiment, a Friedman analysis (
) was performed on the scores of the
paired comparison. Then, a non-normalised principal component
analysis was performed on the rank sums of the Friedman scores
taking the familiarity-, complexity- and overall-intensity dimen-
sions into account. With regard to the percentage of the variance
ratio of the first axis (higher than 84% whatever the product), we
consider the arousal potential of each variant to correspond to
the coordinates on the first axis.
For the main study, the children’s marks on the structured scale
were converted into values from 1 to 7. In order to compare the ini-
tial (T0) hedonic scores and their development at the different
stages (T1 and T2) between the educated and the control groups,
analyses of variance were performed with the following model: he-
donic scores (T0 or T1–T0 or T2–T1) = group + subject(group) + vari-
ant + group variant + error. If significant effects were revealed, a
comparison of the mean test (Fisher’s LSD) was performed.
3. Results
3.1. The children’s perception of the variants
It was the aim of the preliminary experiment to assess the chil-
dren’s perception of the variants of mashed potatoes, drinkable
yoghurts and compotes in terms of arousal potential. Our first
hypothesis was that, in accordance with the objective for the for-
mulation of the variants, the level of the arousal potential would
follow the order I
C
< I+ C
= I C = I
C+ < I+ C+ for all three
products. Our expectation that no difference would be found be-
tween the variants I+ C , I C and I
C+ level was based on the
hypothesis that the increase in flavour complexity might compen-
sate the decrease in taste intensity and would thus maintain the
same level of the arousal potential.
The first axis of the PCA based on the rank sums of the Friedman
tests represents the arousal potential taking into account the famil-
iarity, the perceived complexity (two questions) and the overall
intensity dimensions. The projection of the variants shows that
the first hypothesis is partially confirmed for mashed potatoes
and compotes (see
), except that the expected iso-intensity
of the arousal potential for the variants I+ C , I C and I
C+ was
not obtained.
Inspection of the
a and c shows that complexity has a
greater impact (large spread over the x-axis) than taste intensity
on the level of arousal potential for this range of products and that
increasing the intensity only adds some subsidiary arousal to the
complexity of the stimuli.
On the contrary, the order of drinkable yoghurt variants on the
first axis is quite different (
b) and reveals a greater impact of
taste intensity than of flavour complexity on the level of arousal
potential. In fact, the bitterness (basic taste intensity) of the grape-
fruit juice added to all variants was probably strongly perceived by
the children. Thus for the mashed potatoes and the compotes, the
results of the preliminary experiment demonstrate a relatively
good consistency between the perception as predicted by the for-
mulation of the products and the real perception evaluated by
the children, but the results also show that a taste like bitterness
for which an inborn aversion exists, may outweigh the influence
of the flavour complexity in the determination of the arousal
potential.
3.2. The initial level of liking for the variants (T0)
In accordance with results from previous studies, we expected
that children without sensory education would like the simpler
variants (the ones with the lower arousal potential) more than
the more complex variants (with the higher arousal potential).
The ANOVA carried out on the whole panel revealed a strong var-
iant effect on the initial liking scores (F
4,187
= 86,97 ; p < 0.0001).
gives the mean liking scores for each variant ranked accord-
ing to their increasing level of arousal potential as well as the re-
sults of the comparison of the means (lsd test).
For mashed potatoes (
a), it shows four different groups of
variants. In more detail, for a same level of flavour complexity, the
saltier variants were significantly more preferred than the less
salty variants, and for a same level of saltiness, the more aromati-
cally complex variants were significantly less liked than the aro-
matically simpler ones. For the drinkable yoghurts and compotes,
b and c shows only two separate groups of variants that are
directly linked to the level of the arousal potential and reveal a
preference for the simpler or less intense variants. Note that, con-
trary to our expectation, the children did not prefer the sweetest
variants in the compotes when they were presented at a same level
of flavour complexity, and that at a same level of bitterness in
drinkable yoghurts, they did not significantly prefer simpler fla-
vour variants over complex ones. This latter observation is proba-
bly due to the children’s dislike of bitterness as demonstrated
elsewhere (
Menella, Pepino, & Beauchamp, 2003
). Thus, the earlier
mentioned hypothesis according to which children without sen-
sory education will prefer the least arousing variants is partially
confirmed and the results are in accordance with
on specific exploratory behaviour, which predicts a slight
preference for simpler stimuli. Furthermore, the fact that neither
a group effect nor a group variant interaction was observed
(see
), confirmed that there was no significant difference
in initial liking scores between the groups and thus allowed us to
compare the changes occurring in the results of these groups at
T1 after the experimental group had followed the sensory educa-
tion program.
3.3. Change in liking scores under the immediate influence of sensory
education (T1–T0)
It was hypothesised that sensory education would lead to
changes in the liking of the educated children only, revealing an in-
crease of hedonic scores for the more complex and a decrease for
the simpler variants as expected by the
. Results of the ANOVA carried out to test this hypothesis
are shown in
and the results of the comparison of the
means are presented in
1
This programme is available in the form of a compact disc-read only memory
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
797
Just after sensory education, an increase in liking scores for
complex mashed potatoes I C and I+ C+ was observed and a de-
crease in liking for the simplest variant I
C
in both the educated
and the control group, while the liking score of I
C+ increased in
the control group only (
a). For compotes, the more the variant
was arousing, the more the liking scores increased at T1 compared
to T0 for both the experimental and the control groups. As for
mashed potatoes, an ANOVA revealed no significant difference be-
tween the experimental and the control groups (
). Never-
theless, for the compotes, we did not observe any decrease for
the least complex variants (
c), indicating perhaps that even
the least complex product was perceived as more complex than
their optimum by the children. These results indicate that only a
few exposures to more complex stimuli (as in the case of the con-
trol group) were sufficient to improve the liking for complex foods
and at the same time reduce liking for simpler variants. Since the
groups did not differ, these effects could be explained by exposure
according to
Dember and Earl’s theory (1957)
, but, contrary to
expectation, not by the effects of sensory education. The results
of the drinkable yoghurts did not point in the same direction. In
fact, in both groups the increase in liking was always higher for
the less bitter variants. This observation is probably due to the bit-
terness provided by the grapefruit juice which seems to disturb all
children whether educated or not.
3.4. Change in liking scores under the delayed influence of sensory
education (T2–T1)
In order to study the long term effects on the development of
the preferences of sensorily educated children, the sensory tests
D
IM
2
1
3
.4
3
%
-120
- 80
80
120
-
- 40
0
40
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Intensity
Complexity
(number of taste)
DIM1 84.34 %
D
IM
2
1
3
.4
3
%
0
-120
-80
-40
40
80
120
-120
- 80
80
120
-
- 40
0
40
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Intensity
Complexity
(number of taste)
DIM
2
13.43 %
- 20
0
20
40
60
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Intensity
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Complexity
(number of taste)
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
- 20
0
20
40
60
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Intensity
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Complexity
(number of taste)
DIM1 88.66 %
D
IM
2
11.11 %
D
IM
2
2
3
.1
1
- 40
- 20
0
20
40
60
80
100
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Intensity
Complexity
(number of taste)
D
IM
2
2
3
.1
1
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
DIM1 96.03 %
- 40
- 20
0
20
40
60
80
100
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Unfamiliarity
Complexity
(surprise)
Intensity
Complexity
(number of taste)
D
IM
2
3.11 %
a
b
c
Fig. 2. Principal component analysis of the familiarity, complexity and intensity dimensions for, respectively, mashed potatoes (2a), drinkable yoghurts (2b) and compotes
(2c).
798
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
were repeated 10 months after the end of the last lesson. The
change in the hedonic scores between steps T1 and T2 was esti-
mated using an ANOVA performed with regard to the effect of var-
iant, group and the interaction group variant. For the results see
and the comparison of the means are presented in
Ten months after sensory education, children’s liking scores for
complex mashed potatoes continued to increase except for the
most complex variant I+ C+ (
a). Interestingly, this increase
was only observed in the educated group, suggesting that an effect
of sensory education appeared 10 months after the end of the
program. Indeed,
shows a significant group effect and a
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Hedonic scores
b
a
c
d
c
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I- C-
I- C+
I C
I+ C-
I+ C+
Hedonic scores
a
a
b
b
b
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I- C-
I+ C-
I C
I- C+
I+ C+
Hedonic scores
a
a
b
b
b
a
b
c
Fig. 3. Means and 95% confidence intervals of the initial (T0) hedonic scores of the
whole panel for the product variants arranged according to their level of arousal
potential. Results for, respectively, mashed potatoes (3a, N = 187), drinkable
yoghurts (3b, N = 182) and compotes (3c, N = 183).
Table 2
Effects of the variants and groups on the mean initial hedonic scores of mashed
potatoes, drinkable yogurts and compotes.
Effect (df)
Mashed
potatoes
Drinkable
yoghurts
Compotes
(N = 95/92
(N = 92/90
)
(N = 91/92
)
Variants (4.4.4)
F
86.97
4.83
8.79
p Value
<.0001
0.0007
<.0001
Group (1.1.1)
F
0.05
2.06
0.27
p Value
0.8212
0.1533
0.6013
Group variants
(4.4.4)
F
1.61
0.39
0.13
p Value
0.1703
0.8149
0.9723
a
N = N control group/N educated group.
Table 3
Effects of variants and groups on the mean changes of hedonic scores, over the period
between before (T0) just after (T1) the sensory education (T1–T0).
Effect (df)
Mashed
potatoes
Drinkable
yoghurts
Compotes
(N = 95/92
)
(N = 92/90
(N = 91/92
Variants (4.4.4)
F
10.53
2.76
3.78
p Value
<.0001
0.0267
0 .0048
Group (1.1.1)
F
0.19
0.03
0.53
p Value
0.6606
0.8682
0.4664
Group variants
(4.4.4)
F
1.78
0.34
1.04
p Value
0.1306
0.8532
0.3881
a
N = N control group/N educated group.
Fig. 4. Means and 95% confidence levels of the changes (T1–T0) in the hedonic
scores for the product variants arranged according to their level of arousal potential
over the period between before (T0) and just after (T1) the education period. Results
for, respectively, mashed potatoes (4a), drinkable yoghurts (4b) and compotes (4c).
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
799
significant group variant interaction. To a lesser extent, a similar
increase was observed for compotes and there the group variant
interaction is also significant (
c). This result confirms our
hypothesis according to which a sensory education could increase
the liking for complex products, even if this effect is not immedi-
ate. However, for drinkable yoghurt variants no development
was significant, which we attribute to the disturbing impact of
the bitter grapefruit taste (
b). Furthermore, the variant I+
C+ of mashed potatoes is probably too arousing for children whose
preference remained stable even after sensory education, as might
be the case with strongly complex stimuli according to the
.
4. Discussion
Perhaps the most striking result of this study is the fact that just
after the sensory education period both groups (and not just the
educated experimental group) increase their liking for the mashed
potatoes and the compotes with a higher arousal potential and in
the case of the mashed potatoes reduce their liking for the stimuli
with a lower arousal potential. It is clear that three exposures to
the products (preference measures at T0 and T1, plus a choice mea-
sure at T0) suffice to invoke a remarkable change in the preferences
at T1 of the control group and that the sensory education of the
experimental group does not seem to provide an extra contribution
to this immediate change, but on the contrary seems to dampen
the effect (see I
C+ in
a and the differences between the
groups in the increase of liking at the lower end of the range of
compotes
c). On the other hand, it seems that the effect of
the sensory education appears 10 months later (T2) in the form
of a consolidation and further extension of the positive exposure
effects on some of the stimuli that are not found in the control
group (see the positive changes in
a and c).
This latter difference between the two groups not only shows
that the sensory education may have positive effects on the further
preference development of the children, but can also serve as an
argument in the discussion about the nature and origin of the ob-
served change between T0 and T1. It reduces the likelihood that all
effects found in that period are merely the result of the age related
development of the children. If this had been the case, the same
similarity in the preference development of the two groups would
have been found in the even longer period between T1 and T2. The
fact that with the three different products different changes have
been observed over this period is a further argument against such
a ‘‘mere ageing” hypothesis. The fact that children can shift their
liking towards more complex flavour stimuli after relatively little
exposure and independent of their ageing, has also been estab-
lished by Léon (
Léon, Couronne, Marcuz, &
Köster, 1999) who showed that children shifted their liking from
simple to complex strawberry jam taste over just a few exposures
within a period of 3 weeks.
The ‘‘optimal arousal shift” theory of
,
on which most of the hypotheses forwarded here were based and
Berlyne’s views on exploratory behaviour seem to offer the best
explanations for most, but not all of the results found. Thus, it is
clear that the results obtained with the mashed potatoes and with
the compotes are fully in line with what one might expect on the
basis of the Dember and Earl theory if one assumes that the arousal
potentials of the mashed potatoes samples ranged from at or just
below to higher than the optimal level and that the ones for the
compotes were all considerably higher than the optimum. At the
same time it is clear that in the case of the yoghurts the arousal ef-
fects are disturbed by the rather strong aversive effects of the bit-
terness which seems to dominate the preference. This latter
finding is in line with the results of
and of
who did find that the effects of arousal
raised by stimulus complexity could easily be disturbed by, respec-
tively, strong sweetness or caloric content differences in their
stimuli.
Nevertheless, the results obtained with the mashed potatoes
and the compotes seem to lend support to the idea that the com-
position of the set of stimuli combining complexity and intensity
Table 4
Effects of variants and groups on the mean changes (T2–T1) in hedonic scores over the
period from just after the sensory education (T1) till 10 months later (T2).
Effect (df)
Mashed
potatoes
Drinkable
yoghurts
Compotes
(N = 83/83
(N = 78/83
(N = 79/83
)
Variants (4.4.4)
F
3.23
1.73
0.13
p Value
0.0122
0.1423
0.9696
Group (1.1.1)
F
3.99
0.81
0.63
p Value
0.0475
0.3709
0.4290
Group variants
(4.4.4)
F
3.19
0.23
2.53
p Value
0.0131
0.9236
0.0394
a
N = N control group/N educated group.
Fig. 5. Means and 95% confidence levels of the changes (T2–T1) in the hedonic
scores for the product variants arranged according to their level of arousal potential
over the period between just after the education period (T1) and 10 months later
(T2). Results for, respectively, mashed potatoes (5a), drinkable yoghurts (5b) and
compotes (5c).
800
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
as the two factors that determine the arousal potential of the stim-
uli has been successful.
The preliminary experiment with the extra-group of children
had already checked that the expected order of arousal level of
the stimuli seemed to correspond with the real order. The results
of the main experiment seem to confirm that different levels of
arousal potential could indeed be obtained by the formulation of
the range of product differing in basic taste intensity and flavour
complexity. The lowest arousal level was closest to the children’s
individual optimal arousal level. That means that the less aromatic
and less intense stimuli were initially preferred as one might ex-
pect on the basis of both Dember and Earl’s theory and Berlyne’s
ideas about specific exploratory behaviour and the initial unpleas-
antness caused by uncertainty in the confrontation with novel and
more complex stimuli.
In the preliminary experiment, it has further been shown that
paired comparison is a well-adapted method for the measurement
of complexity with children. Moreover, the evaluation of complex-
ity based on a reduced number of questions seemed to be sufficient
for this type of study.
Jellinek and Köster (1979, 1983)
measuring perceived complex-
ity in odorants with adult subjects used also paired comparison
with success. Their subjects simply had to decide which of each
pair of stimuli contained most odour notes according to their
opinion.
4.1. The effects of the sensory education program: mere exposure
versus cognitive education
The fact that the development of the preference for more com-
plex foods just after the sensory education period was the same for
both groups indicates that it is based on mere exposure rather than
on the cognitive education provided in the program. Moreover, the
fact that in the control group the newly acquired preferences
hardly changed over the following 10 months (see
) may indi-
cate that the exposure has probably caused a permanent shift in
the optimal arousal level of the children as is expected by the arou-
sal theory of Dember and Earl. According to their view the optimal
arousal level can only be influenced by exposure to pacers (stimuli
that are more complex and arousing than the optimum) and not by
stimuli of a lower arousal level. This is the way in which one learns
to appreciate more complex things in life.
That mere exposure may play an important role in food prefer-
ence development has been shown by a number of authors (
& Marlin, 1982; Pliner, 1982; Sullivan & Birch, 1990
). It should be
remembered however, that there are also cases in which it has
no or even an adverse effect and that the occurrence of these
opposing effects seems to depend on the arousal potential of the
stimuli relative to the optimal arousal level of the subjects (
).
exposed children either to
new cheeses or to new fruits and showed that preference increased
with exposure frequency.
also showed the influence
of mere exposure on the acceptance of novel foods and interpreted
it in terms of the dissipation of neophobia. Whether this latter
interpretation applies in the present case is not certain, because
although the educated children showed a clear decrease of neo-
phobia immediately after the education program, the control group
children did not (
) and showed nevertheless the
same preference shifts. Furthermore, the preference shifts stayed
at least stable in both groups over time after the program and be-
came even more pronounced at T2 in a number of cases for the
educated group, although the earlier found decrease in neophobia
for this latter group disappeared again over this same period (see
T2–T1 in
).
If the sensory education program had no immediate effect on
the development of the preferences, why did it have an effect on
the later developments as shown tentatively for the compotes
and clearly for at least the middle range of the mashed potato sam-
ples? In these cases the educated group clearly distinguishes itself
from the control group at T2.
Several possible explanations for this education effect present
themselves.
One possibility might be that the sensory education has insti-
gated the educated group to try more new foods in the period
immediately following the program in which they showed a de-
creased food neophobia. If among these new foods there were a
number of more complex or otherwise arousing foods they
would develop a higher optimal level of arousal than the control
group that remained neophobic throughout this period. That
complexity is a strong factor in the change of the arousal level
has been shown in a number of studies (
Reverdy, Lange, & Schlich, 2004
).
In the latter of these studies a faster effect of sensory education
was obtained with young adults and teas differing in perceived
complexity.
Another explanation of the delayed effect of the sensory educa-
tion in the present experiment might be that the cognitive aspects
of the education provided the educated group with a better vocab-
ulary to talk about food and made them indeed more consciously
interested in the complexity of the sensory interactions in foods.
Thus, they might discuss foods more often in their peer group. This
raised interested might than in turn result in more frequent expe-
riences with new and interesting food. Other tests in the program
have indeed shown that the educated group developed a better
ability to describe and categorise sensory experiences in a more
objective way (Lange et al., in preparation, personal communica-
tion;
showed the effect of
sensory education on activation of children’s odour and taste per-
ception and an improvement in their ability to describe the sensory
properties of the food. Nevertheless, these effects were not consis-
tent over the 2 years period of their study.
Still another explanation of the difference at T2 between the
groups may be found in the fact that both groups continue to be
with their teacher who was involved (education group) or not in-
volved (control group) in giving the lessons in the program.
Teacher modelling can be effective if it is enthusiastic rather
than silent (Mmm! I love mangos!) and as long as it does not com-
pete with peer modelling (
). As the first
of these authors explains Hendy (2002): ‘‘Social Cognitive Theory
(
), peer models would be expected to be one of the
most powerful agents to encourage food acceptance during pre-
school lunch, with same-gender peers expected to be especially
effective”. Thus, the effect of the teacher supported by the fact that
the whole class took part in the sensory education program, may
have been a powerful stimulation for the further exploration of
new foods.
It is not possible to decide which of these mutually non-exclu-
sive explanations of the delayed success of the sensory education
should prevail, but the fact that the education shows these late re-
sults seems to be a very hopeful sign for the influence of the pro-
gram on the further development of a more varied food pattern
in children.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Academy of Dijon, including Cor-
inne David, Elodie Lecki, Pascale Petitjean and Alain Lamboley for
including the ‘‘Classes du goût” in their teaching programme. We
gratefully acknowledge the children and their parents for their
willingness to participate in this study. Warm thanks to Nathalie
Politzer who adviced for the sensory education program. We also
C. Reverdy et al. / Food Quality and Preference 21 (2010) 794–804
801
thank Catherine Pédron, Aurélie Dagain and Renaud Garret for
their assistance in the measurement sessions. This project was
sponsored by the French National Agency for Research (ANR) and
the National Institute for Agronomical Research (INRA); it was also
labellised by the ‘‘Taste-Nutrition-Health” competitive cluster
Vitagora.
Appendix 1. Description of the sensory education program
Title and aim of the session
Organization of the session
Conclusion and/or contribution of the
session
Lesson 1
«The five senses»
This session evokes the pupils’
understanding of the way in which
one makes contact with foods
The teacher proposes a tasting
procedure in three steps (before,
during and after) that uses the five
senses to describe a food. This session
allows children to enrich their
vocabulary on what they feel
sensorially and emotionally
– All five senses are necessary to
establish contact with the world
of foods
– This contact always comes about
in three phases (before, during
and after the tasting)
Lesson 2
«Taste»
This session lets the pupils discover
the basic tastes (sweet, salty, sour,
bitter and umami) and other mouth
sensations (prickling, burning,
astringency)
The teacher proposes varied tastings
to the pupils to let them discover
their own taste perception and let
them find out that they give answers
that are both similar to those of
others, but still very personal
– Foods offer a wide variety of tastes
and chemical sensations in the
mouth
– Knowing how to express different
tastes and sensations
– Showing the diversity between
individuals in gustative perception
Lesson 3
«Vision»
This session lets the pupils
understand how vision creates
expectations that allow them to
anticipate food taste
Tastings making use of colorants can
show how visual perception creates
expectations capable of modifying
other perceptions
– Colours have an impact on other
sensory perceptions
– Establishment of precise vocabu-
lary for visual perception
Lesson 4
«Olfaction»
This session shows the pupils how
difficult it is to recognise odours
Odour bottles (more or less familiar
odours, fruity odours. . .) are
presented to evoke the pupils’
memories and lead to identification
– Show the relationship between an
odour and the evocation of its
source as well as of associated
memories
– Identify some familiar odours
Lesson 5
«Touch and hearing»
This session aims at enrichment of
the vocabulary for touch and to show
how touch and hearing complement
each other
Samples of different materials (silk,
wool, velvet . . .) are presented to the
pupils. Foods of different hardness,
crispness and crumbliness are tasted
– Different sensations are linked to
touch during tasting: tactile, audi-
tory and thermal perception
– Enrich vocabulary on touch and
hearing
– Link food texture, consistence and
temperature with each other
Lesson 6
«Aroma»
This session shows how aromas in the
mouth are perceived by retro-nasal
olfaction and how a food when eaten
cold or warm gives off different
aromas
Different very aromatic foods are
tasted and the teacher explains how
one can get rid of the aromatic
sensations by using the ortho or
retro-nasal way
– Distinction
between
direct
(odours) and indirect (aromas)
olfaction
– The temperature of foods modifies
the sensations
Lesson 7
«Flavour»
This session provides the possibility
to study the sensations of sessions 2,
4 and 6 simultaneously
The pupils learn to identify these
different sensations when they are
simultaneously present in complex
foods, as well as to identify their
development over time
– Definition of flavour
– Forms of interactions between the
senses involved
– Synthesis of all themes evoked
hitherto (important information
and vocabulary)
Lesson 8
«Preparation of a dish»
In this session, with the help of a
professional, the pupils prepared a
recipe for food
This cooking workshop takes place
with a professional
– Experiencing
the
pleasure
of
working out a dish
– Understanding the variety of pos-
sible ways to eat a given food
– Discussion on eating habits
Lesson 9
«Food preferences»
Tasting unfamiliar food: each group is
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Appendix A1 (continued)
Title and aim of the session
Organization of the session
Conclusion and/or contribution of the
session
The pupils are asked to justify their
preferences and to stimulate their
curiosity for new foods
required to search for taste
information about one fruit and then
to encourage other children to taste it
– Individual food preferences differ
a lot
– To talk about your preferences and
to justify them
– To accept the taste of new foods
Lesson 10
«Regional specialities»
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how cultural history may explain
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cultures
Lesson 11
«Recapitulation»
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edge that can be of help when
evaluating food
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things they have learned during the
foregoing lessons by evaluating a
meal prepared for them
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restaurant
– Re-use the acquired knowledge
– Take part in a relaxing experience:
the pleasure of eating together
– Develop skills linked to table man-
ners and ‘‘savoir-vivre”
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on the taste of food
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Document Outline
- Effect of sensory education on food preferences in children
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