Language Skills

Last update: 21 August 2002

As the System/Process model of the communication process implies, the act of
communicating presupposes a degree of cooperation between the sender and
receiver, including an assumption that in using language, each will follow
certain rules.

The grammatical rules of a language help stabilize the language and improve
its ability to communicate across the barriers of time and distance. In general,
communication in business, and especially written communication in business,
employs what has come to be known as Standard English.

In business and in most professions in the United States, language is
considered correct when it follows the rules of Standard English for spelling,
grammar, and mechanics (punctuation) and uses words according to their
dictionary definitions. Although it is widely acknowledged that the accepted
meanings of words change over time and that rules of usage may change as
well, differences from the current standard are usually noticed—and noticed
unfavorably.

For this reason, you will do well to know the fundamentals of Standard
English. Having the fundamentals under control will also allow you to
communicate quickly and easily with the confidence that comes from knowing
that your audience is unlikely to find errors in your writing and speech.

Fundamentals

The fundamentals of Standard English include such aspects of usage as the
meaning and use of words, the functions and types of sentences, and the
relationships between sentences.

Definitions of Words

Although the meanings of words can and do change over time, most readers
and listeners will expect you to use words the way they are defined in a
dictionary. Failure to do so is typically called an error in diction, whereas
using an inappropriate word for a given context (calling something cheap
when inexpensive would be more appropriate) is typically called word choice.

Faulty Diction:

•

Finding a $50 bill in the street was really fortuitous. [Instead of
fortunate or lucky.]

•

The automobile was still young when it received its first scratch.
[Instead of new.]

•

The fruit basket is for your amusement. [Instead of enjoyment.]

•

Please edit the letter to improve its errors. [Instead of correct.]

Faulty Word Choice:

•

He was convicted of drunk driving. [Instead of drunken or driving
while drunk.]

•

Did you get my letter? [Instead of receive.]

•

I feel that we should install a new computer system. [Instead of think.]

•

Please pick the one you like best. [Instead of select.]

Note, for example, that feel, believe, and think do not mean the same thing and
that they should not be used interchangeably. Feel refers to an emotion only;
believe refers to an acceptance based on faith (emotion) supported by an
element of reason, and think refers to a conclusion based on evidence. The
word you elect to use in a sentence serves as a signal to your audience for the
quality of the information you are providing, with the highest quality being
based on the logical consideration implied by the word think:

•

I feel that we should invest in new laptop computers.

•

I believe that we should invest in new laptop computers.

•

I think that we should invest in new laptop computers.

Parts of Speech

Words are used in sentences according to grammatical function. While some
words can perform more than one function, most cannot. The possible uses of
a word are governed by its part of speech. Nouns and pronouns, for example,
function as subjects, objects, and complements in sentences, while verbs serve
as predicates. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Conjunctions join elements, and prepositions indicate relationships.

Sentence Classifications

Sentences may be classified according to function or structure.

Function: A sentence may have one of the following functions or purposes:
Declarative sentences make statements. Interrogative sentences ask questions.
Imperative sentences give commands, and exclamatory sentences express
strong emotion.

Structure: Sentences may also be classified according to structure. Simple
sentences contain only one independent clause, with one subject (which may
be a compound subject) and one predicate (verb), which may be a
compound predicate. Compound sentences contain more than one
independent clause joined by a conjunction or a semicolon.

Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one dependent or
subordinate clause (a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence).

Compound complex sentences consist of at least two independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.

Sentence Structure. Because sentences are the basic unit of verbal
communication (both oral and written), a good understanding of sentence
structure is essential. To be a sentence, for example, a group of words needs at
least one subject and verb and must express a complete thought.

Where words and word groups (phrases and clauses) are placed in a sentence,
how they are used, and their relationship to each other (as indicated by
placement; punctuation; and such relationship words as conjunctions,
prepositions, and subordinating adverbs and conjunctive adverbs) may
influence the meaning of the sentence.

Phrases (a word group without its own subject and predicate) and clauses (a
word group containing its own subject and predicate) in sentences may be
either restrictive (essential) or nonrestrictive (unessential) in a sentence.
Restrictive clauses define or limit the term being modified:

•

Restrictive phrase: The car with the flat tire is in the garage. [Defines
which car out of several is in the garage.]

•

Nonrestrictive phrase: The car, now with a flat tire, is in the garage.
[Refers to a specific car which now happens to have a flat tire.]

•

Restrictive clause: My secretary who smokes too much does sloppy
work. [The person has more than one secretary and the one who
smokes too much does sloppy work.]

•

Nonrestrictive clause: My secretary, who smokes too much, does
sloppy work. [The person has one secretary who smokes and does
sloppy work.]

Transition and Coherence. The full expression of an idea typically requires
more than one sentence, and the logic with which sentences are connected is
typically considered a fundamental skill. Transition refers to the way in
which sentences and ideas are connected to each other, and coherence refers
to the way groups of sentences focus on a topic.

To ensure good transition and coherence, group related ideas and then arrange
them in a logical order, making sure that the relationship of each sentence to
the previous one is clear and logical. Remember that a relationship that is clear
and logical in your own mind may not be clear and logical to a reader or
listener who does not have your knowledge of the subject.

Parallel Construction. Ideas are parallel when they are expressed in the same
grammatical form. Lists of words or phrases, for example, should all be
expressed in the same part of speech or grammatical form:

Not this: I’m going to tell you three things: First, use parallel
construction; second, use parallel construction; and (c) be parallel.

Say this: I’m going to tell you three things: First, use parallel
construction; second, use parallel construction; and third, use parallel

construction.

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of sentences arranged in logical order and focused on a
specific topic. In general, a paragraph begins with a topic sentence that makes
a statement about the subject or topic of the paragraph. The topic sentence is
followed by support sentences that describe or explain the topic sentence.

In business writing, paragraphs are usually shorter than they are in academic
or scientific writing because short paragraphs are easier to read. As a general
rule, in single-spaced documents (such as letters, memos, and email), first and
last paragraphs should be kept to no more than about 4 or 5 lines of text (lines,
not sentences), and middle paragraphs should be kept to no more than about
10 lines. Information that is “buried” in the middle of a long paragraph may be
overlooked.

In most business documents, the first and last paragraphs contain the most
important information and should be easy to read. The paragraphs in the
middle usually contain information of less importance.

Communication As Cooperation

Knowing the fundamentals will help you understand language and provide
you with a set of tools for discussing it. The rules of grammar evolved to
facilitate communication. When everybody follows the same rules, fewer
problems occur as a result of simple misunderstandings. Knowing the
fundamentals alone, however, will not make you an effective communicator. It
is, of course, possible to speak and write with absolute correctness and still be
an ineffective communicator.

Nevertheless, knowing the fundamentals will not only give you confidence in
your ability to express yourself without having to worry about the correctness
of what you are saying, but also provide you with more choices in your use of
language. A number of what have been called advanced language patterns are
based on deliberate violations of the rules of standard English. If you do not
know those rules to begin with, you can’t choose to break them deliberately to
achieve a specific communication objective.

In addition to using Standard English, you can improve your written
communication by being clear and easy to read. Further, your reader will
appreciate it if you save his or her time by being as concise as possible.

Although communication is always less than perfect, your reader will
appreciate it if you use common, well-known words when possible and use
them according to their dictionary definitions. When you don’t know for sure
what a word means, look it up before using it. Be especially careful when
using words often confused, such as affect and effect, complement and
compliment, or principal and principle.

In general, short, familiar words are more readily understood than long,
seldom-used words (improve as compared to ameliorate). Also, avoid
technical terms and professional jargon unless you know for sure that your
readers will be familiar with the terminology.

Conciseness and brevity are not the same. Good written communication is
both concise and complete, and while shorter is often better, some messages
need to be long if they are to be fully understood. Conciseness is best achieved
by eliminating redundancies and deadwood—unnecessary words, expressions,
and sentences.

Advanced Language Patterns

There’s more to language, of course, than fundamentals. Language is the
principal bridge not only between external reality and subjective experience,
but also between one person’s subjective experience and another’s. For this
reason, it can be used to facilitate the recovery of information that has been
deleted and to clarify that which has been distorted or generalized. It can also
be used to influence and persuade.

The Metamodel:

The Metamodel is based on the work of Alfred Korzybski(Science and Sanity:
An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, 1933).
Korzybski thought that we could eliminate many problems by making our
verbal representations of reality more accurate by recognizing when
information being presented is incomplete, distorted, or inappropriately
generalized. Korzybski thought that we would understand each other better
(and behave more sanely) if we were clear about who, what, when, and where.

As codified by Richard Bandler and John Grinder (see The Structure of
Magic, Vols. I and II), the Metamodel focuses on the most common deletions,
distortions, and inappropriate generalizations and provides questions that will
help recover or correct such problems.

Deletions, distortions, and unwarranted generalizations are known as
violations of the Metamodel. While it is impossible for either perception or
communication to be absolutely free from deletions, distortions, and
generalizations, communication is often (but not always) facilitated when they
are minimized. The following are the most common violations:

•

Unspecified nouns: Unspecified nouns are often nominalizations,
abstract nouns without external referents, such as freedom, justice,
love, trust, help, productivity, efficiency, and quality. The classic test
for a nominalization is can you put it in a wheelbarrow. If it is a noun
and you cannot put it in a wheelbarrow, it’s a nominalization.

Be aware of unspecified nouns. When an unspecified noun may cause
problems in the communication process, ask a question that will help
recover deleted information:

We need to improve our
departmental efficiency.

What do you mean by
"efficiency"?
How will we measure efficiency?

I could use a little help.

What kind of help do you need?
How specifically can I help you?

We are all concerned about quality.

What do you mean by "quality"?
How do you know we all want
that?

Computers are bad for society.

All computers?
How exactly are they bad for
society?
Are they bad for all societies?

People are our most important
resource.

All people?
Which people specifically?
How are you measuring my

stated or implied by another’s sentences. Some unspecified pronouns,
such as everyone and no one constitute unwarranted generalizations.
Others, such as some, one, this, it, these, those, and you when it is used
to refer to people in general rather than the listener or reader may
indicate uncertainty about the referential index, the antecedent or
reference for the pronoun (the noun to which the pronoun refers).

This is going to be a problem

What specifically is going to be a
problem?

Someone will have to finish the
report.

Who specifically will finish the report?

We’ll have to do something
about this.

What exactly will we have to do about
it?
What exactly do we need to do
something about?

No one understands me.

No one?
Who specifically doesn’t understand
you?
How do you know?

It’s wrong to try to persuade
people.

Wrong for whom?
How exactly is it wrong?
How do you know that it’s wrong?

•

Unspecified verbs: Some verbs are more specific than others based
on the kind of action they denote. Telephone, for example, is more
specific than contact, because it specifies how the contact is to be
made. Verbs that provide a number of behavioral possibilities include
such words as change, finish, fix, know, learn, remember, solve, and
understand. In many contexts, the number of behavioral possibilities
may result in confusion and inappropriate action.

You need to finish
this report.

What exactly still needs to be done?
How exactly should I finish it?

You are confusing me.

How exactly am I confusing you?
What specifically do you find confusing?

Let’s just enjoy
ourselves.

How do you think we should enjoy ourselves?
What would you like to do?

Please contact me.

How exactly should I contact you?
What do you mean by “contact”? Would you
prefer me to call or send email?

Please take care of the
problem.

How exactly should I take care of it?
What would you like me to do?

•

Unwarranted generalizations (universal quantifiers): Most broad
generalizations are false, and using them may preclude exceptions and
alternatives. Such words as all, always, every, everyone, only, never,
and no one indicate such generalizations. Universal quantifiers may be
implied rather than actually included in the sentence: Men are pigs,
implies that all men are pigs. They don’t promote women at XYZ,
implies that no one at XYZ promotes women or that women at XYZ
are never promoted.

You always criticize me.

Always?
I never do anything else?

You never want to do anything.

Never?
Anything?
What do you mean?

Politicians are crooks.

All politicians?
How do you know?
Everyone?

•

Unwarranted rules (modal operators of necessity): For one reason
or another, most people internalize rules about the way the world
works that may or may not be true. Such words as can’t, have to, must,
need to, should, and shouldn’t signal an individual’s rules at work.
If...then statements, such as If I study, (then) I will earn good grades,
also indicate a rule. Whether the rule is unwarranted depends on the
circumstances, and the only way to find out whether the rule applies is
to challenge it.

We must finish the report
before leaving.

What would happen if we didn’t?
How do you know?

We should go now.

Why should we?
What would happen if we didn’t?

We can’t do that here.

How do you know?
What would happen if we did?

We need to exercise more.

How do you know?
What would happen if we didn’t?

I’ve worked hard, so I deserve
the promotion.

Does hard work guarantee a promotion?
Has anyone worked hard before and not
earned a promotion?

Because perception is less than complete and language is also less than
complete, most sentences you will hear on any given day will contain
violations of the metamodel. It isn’t always useful to request others to supply
more information. If someone says, "We need to go have lunch now," you will
probably be better off spending your time going to lunch than asking what
would happen if you didn’t, how exactly you were going to go, or what
specifically was meant by "lunch."

Nevertheless, you should be alert to violations of the metamodel because they
reveal limitations in one’s model (mental map) of the world. When
understanding the limitation is important to your objective—or when it would
be beneficial for the other person—it’s worth asking a question to help fill in
the details or correct a misconception.

The Milton Model

The Milton Model is based on the work of Milton H. Erickson, M.D., a
psychotherapist of remarkable skill. In some ways, the Milton Model is the
reverse of the Metamodel in that Richard Bandler and John Grinder noticed
that Erickson achieved his results in part by deliberately omitting or distorting
information so that those who listened to him would provide the appropriate
details from their own subjective experience.

Bandler and Grinder developed the model so that others could employ
Erickson’s techniques in their communication with others. (See Bandler and
Grinder, Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D.,
Vol. 1 and Grinder, DeLozier, and Bandler, Patterns of the Hypnotic
Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D., Vol. 2.)

Erickson discovered that by being "artfully vague," he could make statements
that sounded specific but required the listener to provide the missing details.
Such language is useful for hypnosis and all persuasive communication. If you
observe advertising messages carefully, for example, you will find many of
the kinds of deletions described by the Milton Model. Many of these are
essentially the deliberate violations of the metamodel for persuasive purpose.

•

Unspecified nouns: Because of the knowledge and experience you

l

d h

b

i t

ti

d

f

i it

b

t h

you can use the Milton model to be more persuasive.

•

Unspecified pronouns: When you think about it now, you may recall
someone from your past who was especially helpful at a time you
really needed it.

•

Unspecified verbs: You may begin to wonder whether you will
understand the Milton model well enough to use it when you want to
be persuasive. I think you’ll find that you will remember it when you
need it.

•

Generalizations: You can always practice the Milton model on
everyone with whom you speak.

•

Comparisons: You’ll feel better in knowing that the more you use the
Milton model, the easier it will become.

•

Shifts in referential index: Speaking for myself only, I have found
that when you use the Milton model effectively, your friends start
finding everything you say more persuasive.

In addition to these reversals of the metamodel, Erickson also used
presuppositions, embedded questions, embedded and negative commands,
metaphors, and a variety of ambiguities.

•

Presuppositions: A presupposition is something assumed to be true.
All sentences contain or imply presuppositions. In the two preceding
sentences, for example, I have presupposed that you are a speaker of
English and that you have certain words in your vocabulary. Because
what is presupposed in a sentence is less subject to question than other
elements may be, the careful use of presuppositions may facilitate
persuasion. Compare what is being presupposed in the following
sentences:

o

You wouldn’t want to go out with me, would you?

o

If you go out with me, we could go to dinner and a movie if
you want.

o

Would you like to go out with me? We could go to dinner and
see a movie.

o

When you go out with me, we’ll go to dinner and see a movie.

o

Before you go out with me, think about where you’d like to
have dinner and which movie you’d like to see.

o

Let’s have dinner at Chuck’s Steak House and go see Godzilla.

Which of the sentences do you think would be most persuasive? Which
presuppose a negative outcome? Which would be too presumptuous
(presupposing too much) for most relationships? For more information
on using presuppositions in business communication, see Language

and Meaning.

•

Embedded questions: People may resent or resist certain questions.
If the question is embedded in a larger statement, however, people
typically find the question less threatening and are more willing to
answer it.

Not this: How much money do you make?
Say this: I’m wondering about how much money you earn.

A person can still refuse to supply the information, but the embedded
question seems less threatening than the direct question does. This can
be useful for softening the effect of metamodel questions:

o

I’m wondering exactly how we should finish the report.

o

I’m curious to know how you know that.

o

I’d be interested in knowing more about what you mean by
that.

o

I’d like to know whether you really mean all men.

•

Embedded commands: Any directive contained within a larger
sentence is an embedded command. In oral communication, embedded
commands are often set off with a special tone of voice or some other
form of analog marking, such as a change in pitch, an increase in
volume, or a pause before the command.

o

You can feel better in knowing that you will be able to use
these techniques in your conversations.

o

When you want to know more, just ask.

o

Advanced language patterns allow you to have fun while you
learn more about how language works.

•

Negative commands: Negative commands are a special class of
embedded command. Because negativity exists in language but not in
nature, sentences containing negatives are more difficult to understand.
In general, the positive idea must be processed first. The negative is
added afterwards, and sometimes not at all. This is the principal reason
that denials are seldom effective (recall Richard Nixon’s, “I am not a
crook”).

o

Don’t think of elephants.

o

Don’t look now.

o

Don’t forget to pick me up at 7:00.

o

Don’t worry about it.

o

Don’t give this a second thought.

•

Tag questions: Short questions following a statement are called "tag
questions" because they are tagged on to the statement. Tag questions
are often seen as undermining the strength of the initial statement.
When the tag question is inflected as a question (with the voice tone
rising), they do call the original statement into question:

o

The weather is beautiful today, isn't it? [With voice tone
rising.]

o

That was a good movie, wasn't it? [With voice tone rising.]

o

That was a problem, wasn't it? [With voice tone rising.]

When inflected as a question, the speaker seems to be asking the
listener to agree or disagree with the statement. When a tag question is
inflected as a statement (with the voice tone dropping), however, the
tag question functions to provide an additional sense of completion for
the statement and to pace a listener's tendency to mismatch.

o

The weather is beautiful today, isn't it. [With voice tone
dropping.]

o

That was a good movie, wasn't it. [With voice tone dropping.]

o

That was a problem, wasn't it. [With voice tone dropping.]

Tag questions can be used to influence a listener's response. When you
want the listener to think about and respond to-either by confirming or
denying the content of the statement, add a tag question with the voice
inflection rising: You were glad to have known her, weren't you? The
listener will be inclined to respond with a yes or no and an explanation
or list of reasons.

When you want the listener to accept and recognize the truth of the
statement without inviting further reflection or a denial, add a tag
question with the voice inflection dropping: You were glad to have
known her, weren't you. The listener will be more inclined to accept
the truth of the statement without additional reflection or commentary.

•

Conversational postulates: A conversational postulate is a question
asking for yes or no as a response but which often presupposes and
produces a behavioral response. The most common conversational
postulate is Do you have the time? A literal response to the question
would be either yes or no, but when asked this question, most people
will look at their watches and tell the person who asked the time. If
someone asks, Does anyone have a pencil? people typically respond
by checking to see whether they have a pencil the person can borrow.

Conversational postulates can be used in hypnosis and a wide variety

of persuasive situations. Think of the behavior you would like to
produce, and ask a yes/no question that presupposes the desired
behavior.

o

Will you allow yourself to relax more fully?

o

Will you tell me a bit about your problem?

o

Can you clarify what the contract says?

o

Can you sign the contract now?

o

Is the contract complete and ready to be signed?

•

Metaphors: As an advanced language pattern, a metaphor is any story
that helps illustrate a point or motivate someone. Because language is a
symbolic representation of reality, it is inherently metaphorical, and
the human brain seems to have a special affinity for metaphors. For
this reason, metaphors can be a very useful persuasive device.

Metaphors can be either deep (the kind you find in literature) or
shallow, (typically of more use in business). In a deep metaphor,
plants and animals may talk and have special messages for the listener,
or the story may take place “once upon a time” when kings and queens
ruled the kingdom and princes and princesses got into and out of
difficulties.

In a shallow metaphor, the story will be similar to the situation being
discussed.

o

Last semester I had a student who thought that he could learn
everything at the last minute.... [If you are a student this
semester, and especially if you have a tendency to
procrastinate, you may want to know what happened to him.]

o

Over the years, I have watched hundreds of nervous students
give speeches, but none was ever worse than a young woman
named Sally.... [If you suffer from anxiety about public
speaking, you may want to know about Sally’s problem and
how she solved it.]

o

One of the reasons I like the advanced language patterns is that
they allow me to understand others better and to be more
persuasive when I need to be. I have found that there’s a high
degree of positive correlation between my personal success and
my use of the advanced language patterns. [If you, like me, are
interested in success, you may want to know more about how
the advanced language patterns have helped me be more
successful.]

•

Quotes: Using “quotes” is a special application of metaphor. In most
cases, if you attribute your statement to someone else, you can say

anything you want without having to accept responsibility for it. In
using quotes, you establish some distance between you and the
statement or story you wish to convey to your listener:

o

One of the other business communication instructors told me
that she had a student who said that he intended to conduct all
his business on the telephone and therefore wouldn’t need to
learn to write effective letters. She told him that it was actually
easier to write effective letters than it was to communicate
effectively by telephone....

o

I was talking to George in Marketing the other day, and he told
me that someone in your department said that you were really
being a jerk about overtime....

o

One of my uncles was a very successful car salesman. He was
also a champion billiards player, and one of his favorite sayings
was that “Power is no substitute for finesse.” He said that it
didn’t matter whether you were shooting pool or selling cars,
that finesse always scored more points—and earned more
money—than power.

•

Ambiguities: A word, phrase, or clause is said to be ambiguous when
it has more than one possible meaning. English is rich with
ambiguities, which are often used for humorous intent. Puns, for
example, are one application of phonological ambiguities, words that
sound alike but have different meanings. In addition to their use in
humor, phonological ambiguities can have serious purpose. In
nonhumorous situations, the conscious mind will typically process just
the surface meaning only, but the unconscious mind will process both:

o

Come by (buy) today for a test drive. We’re open until 6:00.

o

You may want to think about these no (know) more.

Syntactic ambiguity occurs when the meaning of a phrase is unclear
because a word may be functioning as either a verb or an adjective:

o

They were riding horses. [Were they riding the horses, or were
the horses riding horses as opposed to race horses or plow
horses?]

o

Teaching professors can be difficult. [Is it difficult to teach
professors, or are those professors who teach difficult people?]

Scope ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase can apply to more
than one part of a sentence.

o

I enjoy seeing interesting movies and plays. [Does interesting
apply to both movies and plays, or does it apply to movies
only?]

o

I don’t know how soon you will realize that you are finding this
information interesting, and you are beginning to apply it in all
your conversations. [Does you will realize modify both your
finding this information interesting and your beginning to
apply it?]

o

This morning the students had to wait for their professor to
begin learning about scope ambiguities. [Who is beginning to
learn about scope ambiguities? Is it the professor or the
students?]

o

I saw men and women on horses walking down the street.
[What exactly did I see? Were the men and women both on
horses? Were the men walking down the street at the same time
women on horses were walking?]