Str. 1
1 The origins of language
�� � We don t know for sure how the language originated
�� � Jespersen speculates that it developed when people enjoyed themselves
Language theories:
�� � The divine source  humans were provided with language by God
o There were experiments to prove which language could be labeled as divine
�� � The natural-sound source  language was an imitation of natural sounds heard by early
people
o Bow-wow theory  language developed from onomatopoeic sounds of nature (eg.
bow-wow, cuckoo, bang, boom, splash) or natural cries of emotion (pain, anger, joy 
eg. Ah!, Hey!, Wow!, Yuck!)
o Yo-heave-ho theory  language developed from sounds of people involved in physical
effort (esp. when several people had to coordinate with each other)
�� � The oral-gesture source  language developed as a set of oral gestures, similar to
physical gestures
�� � Glossogenetics  addresses biological formation and development of human language,
describes unique human features that enable people to use and develop language (eg.
upright posture, two-legged locomotion, revised role of front limbs)
Physiological adaptation:
�� � teeth  upright, even in height  helpful in making sounds such as f, v and th;
�� � lips  more complex muscle construction than other primates; helps with p, b, w
�� � mouth  relatively small, can opened and closed rapidly
�� � tongue  flexible, can be used to shape various sounds
�� � larynx  situated differently from that of monkeys, due to upright posture it was moved
lower
o however, people can choke on pieces of food more easily than animals
�� � pharynx  situated above the vocal cords, resonator for sounds produced via the larynx
Str. 2
�� � lateralized brain  specialized functions on each of the two hemispheres
o left hemisphere  language, analytic functions, tool-using etc.
o ability to construct more complex messages
Functions of language:
�� � interactional  humans use the language to interact with each other (socializing,
expressing emotions)
�� � transactional  humans use the language to share knowledge, skills or information
2 The development of writing
�� � cave drawings  ca. 20k years ago
�� � clay tokens (drawings on pottery)  ca. 10k years ago
�� � alphabetic script  ca 3k years ago
�� � pictograms  pictures used to represent particular images in a consistent way;
conventional connection must exist between the symbol and its interpretation
o eg.�� for  sun
�� � ideograms  pictures representing abstract, derived ideas rather than literal concepts;
o eg. �� - pictogram for  sun , ideogram for  heat ,  daytime
o modern pictograms:
ż� �Ł� �� �� - language-independent
�� � logograms  used by Sumerians in form of cuneiform ( wedge-shaped ) writing; the form
gives no clue to what is being referred to by the symbols
o eg. Chinese characters  represent the whole word, not the sound of spoken language;
�� � rebus writing  symbol of one concept is used to represent the sound of the other word in
spoken form
Str. 3
�� � syllabic writing  symbols represent pronunciations of single syllables
o to some extent, modern Japanese has syllabary (syllabic writing system)
�� � alphabetic writing  written symbols representing a single sound
o Arabic and Hebrew were based on it
o Cyrillic alphabet in Russia
Written English:
�� � no correspondence between the written and spoken form of language due to historical
influences:
o in 15th century, when printing was introduced, writing conventions were already
derived from Latin and French
o many early printers were Dutch and couldn t decide about accurate English
pronunciations
o in 16th century many old words were brought back to their Latin origins (eg. original
iland became island)
3 The properties of language
Linguistic signals:
�� � communicative  intentional, used to communicate (express) something directly
�� � informative  unintentional, carrying some kind of indirect information (eg sneezing =
having a cold, yawning = being bored)
�� � animals do not communicate anything by their appearance; they send only communicative
signals using sounds
Unique properties of human language:
�� � displacement  ability to relate to events far from here and now (past or future,
somewhere else); animals cannot refer to things not present in the immediate environment
o also, we can talk about things and places whose existence we cannot be sure of 
mythical creatures, demons, angels, Santa Claus, etc.  animals cannot relate to fiction
Str. 4
o however, to some degree bees possess this ability  when a worker bee finds a source
of nectar, it comes back to the hive and performs complex dance routine to
communicate to its friends the location of the nectar
�� � arbitrariness  no natural connection between sound and its meaning; the writing form
has no iconic relationship with the real concept (seeing the word  dog we cannot
determine from its shape that it means the four-legged barking animal)
o however, some words  echo sounds of objects and activities  eg. cuckoo, crash,
splash, squelch (onomatopoeic words)
�� � productivity (open-endedness, creativity)  one can produce unlimited number of
utterances using the limited number of elements in the language
o animals cannot produce new signals to communicate new experiences or events
o fixed reference  each animal signal relates to only one particular object or occasion
�� � cultural transmission  we don t inherit the language from our parents, we acquire it in
the culture of other speakers of it; language is passed from one generation to the next
o people do not have specific predispositions for speaking a particular language, such as
English or Polish
o animals learn their signals instinctively
�� � discreteness  each sound in the language is treated as discrete, i.e. change in
pronunciation of one sound leads to a change in meaning of the word, eg pack vs back
�� � duality  two levels of language (sound and meaning):
o distinct sounds  they carry no meaning when put individually
o distinct meanings  we can combine sounds to express different meanings (messages)
o we can produce a large number of sound combinations which are distinct (different) in
meaning using limited number of distinct sounds
Other properties (not uniquely human):
�� � vocal-auditory channel  language is typically generated via the vocal organs and
perceived via the ears; however, we can transmit the language without sound, eg. in
writing or sign language
Str. 5
�� � reciprocity  any speaker/sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/receiver)
�� � specialization  linguistic signals serve only linguistic purpose, they cannot be used for
feeding or breathing
�� � non-directionality  anyone can pick up linguistic signals, not only their original
listeners/receivers
�� � rapid fade  linguistic signals appear and disappear quickly
4 Animals and human language
�� � Washoe  raised like a child in domestic environment, she used signs of American Sign
Language and combined them to produce simple  sentences ; she understood more
symbols than she actually produced
�� � Sarah  used plastic shapes representing words to arrange  sentences
�� � Lana  learnt Yerkish (set of symbols visible on a large computer keyboard)
�� � Nim Chimpsky  learnt and used ASL similarly to human children, but he only produce
signs as a response, and did not develop into more complex ones
�� � Clever Hans  horse that used hoofbeats to answer arithmetical questions and tap out the
letters of the alphabet
�� � Buzz and Doris  two dolphins signaling themselves about the food nearby
�� � Kanzi  learnt Yerkish only seeing his mother Matata learning it; he learnt it by being
exposed to the language
Controversy:
�� � The animals could take part in interaction using sign language
But&
�� � The animals couldn t use the language to the extent of human child
�� � They usually repeated learnt phrases without developing new ones
�� � They rarely started the conversation themselves
�� � It was actually more like training than learning the language
Str. 6
5 The sounds of language
Phonetics  general study of characteristics of speech sounds:
�� � articulatory phonetics  study about how speech is made ( articulated )
�� � acoustic phonetics  deals with the physical properties of speech when sound waves  in
the  air
�� � auditory (perceptual) phonetics  perception of sounds via the ear
�� � forensic phonetics  speaker identification, analysis of recorded utterances for legal
purpose
Articulation of sounds:
�� � voiceless  vocal cords spread apart, the air from lungs passes through them without
obstacles
�� � voiced  vocal cords drawn together, they vibrate when pushed by the flow of air
Str. 7
Place of articulation  where the sound is produced:
�� � bilabials  sounds produced using both upper and lower lips: [p], [b], [m]
�� � labiodentals  formed with upper teeth and lower lip: [f], [v]
�� � dentals  tongue tip behind the upper front teeth: [th]
�� � alveolars  front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l]
�� � alveo-palatals  tongue at the front of the palate near alveolar ridge: [sh], [ch], [dg]
�� � velars  back of the tongue against the vellum: [k], [g]
�� � glottals  without use of the tounge or any other parts: [h]
o glottis  space between the vocal cords and larynx
o open glottis  voiceless sounds
Str. 8
Manner of articulation  how the sounds are produced:
�� � stops (plosives)  stopping the airstream and letting it go abruptly: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k]
�� � fricatives  blocking the airstream and letting it go through the narrow opening (friction):
[f], [v], [th], [s], [z], [s], [ż]
�� � affricates  stopping the airstream and obstructed release: [ch], [dg]
�� � nasals  airstream through the nose: [m], [n], [ng]
�� � approximants (semi-wovels, glides)- [w], [y], [l], [h]
�� � glottal stop  closing the vocal cords and then releasing it: [?], eg. Uh-uh meaning  no
�� � flap  pronouncing eg. [t] similarly to [d]  AmE
Vowels:
�� � all are voiced
�� � produced with relatively free flow of air
�� � they differ in way which the tongue influences the flow of air
o eg. high-front vowel  front part of the tongue in raised position
Diphthongs  begin with vowel sound and end with a glide; they change vocalic position
while being uttered: [ay], [aw]. [oy]
Str. 9
Diphthongization  common in Southern British, AmE
6 The sound patterns of language
Phonology  abstract study which describes the systems and patterns of speech sounds in the
language. It s based on subconscious knowledge of every language speaker.
Phoneme  each sound which distinguishes the meaning in the language. If we replace one
sound with the other and the meaning changes, those sounds are separate phonemes.
Phones  different versions of one sound type; allophones  all phones are versions of the
same phoneme, eg. aspirated vs unaspirated sounds.
Minimal pair  two words are identical in form but differ in one phoneme in the same
position, such as pat  bat, site  side, fan - van.
Minimal set  the same as above, but there are more than two words.
Phonotactics  describes how the sounds are likely to combine with each other, deals with
the sequence or position of English phonemes.
Syllable  must contain a vowel (or vowel-like sound):
�� � onset  one or more consonants
�� � rime - one vowel (nucleus) plus following consonant(s) (coda)
No coda, but onset + nucleus => open syllables (me, to, no)
Coda is present => closed syllables (up, cup, at)
More than one consonant in onset or/and coda => consonant cluster (eg st in stop)
Str. 10
Co-articulation effects  making one sound almost at the same time as the next one in
conversational speech:
�� � assimilation  some aspect of one phoneme is copied by the other (eg. nasalizing [n] in I
can go)
�� � elision  omitting the sound segment that would be present in the pronunciation of the
word in isolation (eg. [himesbi] for he must be)
7 Words and word-formation processes
Neologism  new word in the language which can be quickly understood.
Word-formation processes:
�� � coinage  invention of totally new items, eg. trade names for one company s product
which become general terms (without initial capital letter):
o aspirin, xerox, Teflon
�� � borrowing  taking over the words from other languages:
o alcohol (Arabic), piano (Italian), robot (Czech), zebra (Bantu)
�� � loan-translation, calque  direct translation of the elements of words into borrowing
language:
o teenager = nastolatek
Str. 11
�� � compounding  joining two separate words into a single form:
o bookcase, sunburn, wallpaper, textbook
�� � blending  joining the beginning of one word and the ending of another to create new
word:
o smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch), Chunnel (Channel + tunnel)
�� � clipping  reducing certain elements of the word (abbreviating)
o gasoline => gas, cabriolet => cab, fanatic => fan
�� � backformation  reducing one word (noun) to create other form (verb):
o television => to televise, option => to opt, donation => to donate
�� � hypocorisms (AmE)  reducing word into one syllable and adding -y or  ie
o Aussie (Australian), bookie (bookmaker), hankie (handkerchief)
�� � conversion  change in the function of a word, when a noun comes to be used as a verb
without any reduction
o paper  to paper the bedroom walls, butter  to butter the bread
o to guess  a guess, to must  a must, to spy  a spy
o to see through  see-through material, dirty  to dirty sth
�� � acronyms  words from intial letters of a set of other words:
o laser, scuba, radar, snafu (situation normal, all fouled up)
�� � derivation  adding a affixes to the words:
o prefixes - at the beginning of the word (un-, dis-)
o suffixes  at the end of the word (-ish, -ful)
o infixes  not present in English  adding affix inside the word (unfuckingbelievable!
Multiple processes:
�� � Young Urban Professional + -ie => yuppie (acronym + hypocorism)
�� � analogy  words are formed in a similar way to the existing ones (eg. yuppie from hippe)
Str. 12
8 Morphology
Morphology  the study of forms in language (morphemes).
Morpheme  the smallest unit of meaning that the word can be divided into.
Stem  the basic word-form involved in the use of bound morpheme.
Morphemes:
�� � free  can stand by themselves as single words
o lexical  carry the content of messages we convey (boy, man, house, tiger etc.)
o functional  closed class of words that have some function (articles, pronouns,
conjunctions, prepositions  and, but, when, on, in)
�� � bound  cannot stand alone, they are attached to another form
o derivational  make new words of a different grammatical category from the stem
(can change grammatical category of the word)
ż� �good (adjective) + -ness => goodness (noun)
ż� �teach (verb) + -er => teacher (noun)
o inflectional  do not make new words, but indicate grammatical function of a word
(never changes grammatical category of the word)
ż� �indicate whether the word is singular or plural, past tense or not, comparative or
possessive form
ż� �Noun + - s, -s
ż� �Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en
ż� �Adjective + -est, -er
Morphs  forms to realize morphemes.
Allomorphs  different versions of the same morpheme.
Str. 13
9 Phrases and sentences: grammar
Mental grammar  subconscious internal linguistic knowledge which helps to produce and
recognize appropriately structured expressions.
Linguistic etiquette  knowledge which structures are  proper or  best to be used in the
language.
The parts of speech:
�� � nouns  refer to people, objects, things, creatures, abstract ideas
�� � adjectives  provide more information about the things referred to (happy people)
�� � verbs  refer to various kinds of actions and states (run, jump, be, seem) involving the
things in events
�� � adverbs  provide more information about the actions and events
�� � prepositions  provide information about time, place etc. (at, in, on, near)
�� � pronouns  replace nouns, refer to things already known (this, it,he, she)
�� � conjunctions  connect and indicate relationships between things and events (although)
Traditional grammar  derived from Classical Latin and Greek. Those languages were the
languages of scholarship, religion, philosophy and  knowledge .
Traditional categories:
�� � agreement  whether the parts of speech  agree with each other
�� � number  whether the noun is singular or plural
�� � person  distinctions of first (speaker), second (hearer) and third person (any others)
�� � tense  distinctions of relation to the time
�� � voice  active or passive
�� � gender:
o natural gender  from biological distinction between male and female
o grammatical gender  in terms of grammatical form
Str. 14
The prescriptive approach  setting out rules for  proper use of language, eg.:
�� � Never split an infinitive. (!To boldly go& - Captain Kirk s infinitive)
�� � Never end a sentence with a preposition.
The descriptive approach  analyzing how the language is actually used, not how it should
be used.
Structural analysis  investigates distribution of forms in a language, using  test-frames 
blank spaces for specific category:
�� � The ______________ makes a lot of noise.
Immediate constituent analysis  shows how small components (constituents) go together to
form larger constituents.
10 Syntax
Syntax ( setting out together ,  arrangement ) structure and ordering of component within a
sentence.
Generative grammar (by Chomsky) explicit system of formalized rules from mathematical
view of language; using finite set of rules to generate infinite number of sentences.
Properties of grammar:
�� � it will use finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of well-formed structures
�� � recursion  it can be used more than once in generating a structure
�� � deep and surface structure:
o surface  syntactic form of English sentence
o deep  abstract level of organization, involving structural interpretation
�� � structural ambiguity  the sentence has two deep structures (Anne whacked a man with
an umbrella)
Str. 15
11 Semantics
Semantics  study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, which emphasize
objective, general and conventional meaning conveyed by the words and sentences.
Meaning of the word:
�� � conceptual  basic, literal components of meaning (needle = thin, sharp, steel instrument)
�� � associative  connotations of the word (needle = pain)
Semantic features:
The hamburger ate the man.
NP V NP
(-animate)
(-human)
Semantic roles:
�� � agent  performs the action
�� � theme  involved or affected by the action
�� � instrument  is used in performing the action
�� � experiencer  has a feeling, perception or state
�� � location  where the action takes place
�� � source  where the entity moves
�� � goal  where the entity reaches to
Str. 16
Mary saw a moskito on the wall
EXPERIENCER THEME LOCATION
She borrowed a magazine from George
AGENT THEME SOURCE
and she hit the bug with the magazine.
AGENT THEME INSTRUMENT
She handed the magazine back to George.
AGENT THEME GOAL
 Gee thanks , said George.
AGENT
Lexical relations  are analyzed in semantic description of languages:
�� � synonymy  closely related meanings (not always the same; may differ in terms of
formality):
o almost  nearly, cab  taxi, liberty  freedom, answer  reply
�� � antonymy  words with opposite meanings:
o gradable antonyms  can be used in comparative constructions; negative of one word
doesn t have to imply the other (big  small => bigger than)
o non-gradable antonyms (complementary pairs)  no comparative constructions;
negative of one form implies the other (dead  alive)
o reversives  one word doesn t mean negative of the other (tie  untie != not tie) but
rather the reverse of it
�� � hyponymy  meaning of one form is included in another:
o dog  animal, carrot-vegetable,
�� � prototypes  one word is considered the best exemplar of its category:
o bird  sparrow or pigeon
o furniture  bench or stool
�� � homophony  two different written forms have the same pronunciation (homophones):
o bare  bear, meat  meet, sew - so
Str. 17
�� � homonymy  one form has more than one unrelated (separate) meaning:
o bank (of a river)  bank (institution), hands (watch)  hands (human body)
�� � polysemy  one form having many related meanings:
o head  on the top of body; on the top of company;
�� � metonymy  based on a close everyday connection:
o container-contents: bottle  coke, can  juice
o whole-part: car  wheels, house - roof
�� � collocation  which words frequently go together:
o butter  bread, salt - pepper
12 Pragmatics
Pragmatics  the study of  intended speaker meaning of the words.
Context:
�� � linguistic (co-text)  words used in the same phrase or sentence, which has strong impact
on the meaning of the word
�� � physical  the time and space in which we encounter linguistic expressions
Deictic expressions  can be understood only in their physical context:
�� � person deixis: me, you, him, them
�� � place deixis: here, there
�� � time deixis: now, then, last week
Reference  act by which the speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader)
to identify something (Can I look at your Chomsky?).
Inference  additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must
be meant (I enjoy listening to Mozart).
Str. 18
Antecedent and anaphora:
Can I borrow your book?
Yeah, it s on the table.
Book  antecedent (mentioned for the first time)
It  anaphoric expression (reference to already introduced entity)
Presupposition - knowledge which the speaker assumes to be true or known by the hearer.
�� � Your brother is there. (=You have a brother)
Constancy under negation:
My car is (not) a wreck = I have a car.
Speech acts  actions such as:
�� � requesting
�� � commanding
�� � questioning
�� � informing
�� � direct speech act - eg. question Did he..?, Are they& ? used to ask the question (get the
information)
�� � indirect speech act  using a form, which performs different action than it would suggest:
o You left the door open. = Close the door.
Politeness  showing awareness of another person s face (public self-image).
�� � face-threatening act  eg. direct orders to show the social power over somebody (Give
me that salt!)
�� � face-saving act  lessens possible threat to someone else s face, eg. indirect speech acts
(Could you give me that salt, please?)
Face:
�� � negative  the need to be independent and free from imposition
�� � positive  the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group
Str. 19
13 Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis  understanding what speakers mean despite what they say, taking part in
a course of conversation.
As a language users, we are capable of recognizing correct vs incorrect form and structure, we
can also make sense of ungrammatical texts.
Cohesion  the ties and connection within the text, that make it logical.
Coherence  arriving at interpretation, making sense of what one reads or hears.
Conversation  activity where speakers take turns at speaking. When the speaker indicates
that he has finished, he signals a completion point (asks the question, pauses, facial
expressions etc).
Co-operative principle  our contribution to conversation must be appropriate.
Four maxims:
�� � Quantity: make your contribution as informative as required, not more, not less
�� � Quality: do not say for what you lack evidence or that is untrue, do not gossip
�� � Relation: be relevant to the topic
�� � Manner: be clear, brief and orderly:
o avoid obscurity (Eschew obfuscation);
o avoid ambiguity
o be brief;
o be organized;
Background knowledge:
�� � schema  conventional knowledge structure which exists in memory
�� � script  dynamic schema consisting of a series of conventional actions (going to the
dentist, restaurant)
Str. 20
14 Language and machines
Speech synthesis  attempt to create speech electronically (the result is synthetic speech)
Navigators  computer programs that follow simple spoken commands.
Dictation systems  create written text from speech.
Artificial intelligence  making machines do things requiring intelligence if done by men.
Parsers  work from left to right along an incoming English sentence, create an analysis and
predict what elements will come next.
Understander systems:
�� � ELIZA  simulator of psychotherapist in form of computer terminal
�� � SHRDLU  follows commands to move objects around in its world; it s able to ask for
clarification if unsure;
�� � PRAGMA  system recognizing the user s plans and providing additional information
15 Language and the brain
Parts of the brain:
�� � Broca s area (anterior speech cortex)  involved in the production of speech
�� � Wernicke s area (posterior speech cortex)  involved in the understanding of speech
�� � The motor cortex  controls movement of the articulatory muscles (face, jaw, tongue,
larynx)
�� � The arcuate fasciculus  links Broca s and Wernicke s areas
Word is heard via Wernicke s area => signal goes through the arcuate fasciculus to Broca s
area, which prepares an answer => signal to motor cortex in order to articulate the word.
Str. 21
Tongue tips and slips  when brain and speech production fail to work together smoothly:
�� � tip of the tongue  one knows the word but cannot get it into the surface; mainly in case
of uncommon terms of names
�� � malapropisms  mistakes in uttering the words (eg. sextet instead of sextant)
�� � slip of the tongue  distracting the expressions (eg. long shory stort)
�� � Spoonerisms  word reversals, eg. use the door to open the key
�� � slips of the ear  misunderstandings (great ape instead of grey tape)
Disorders in brain function:
�� � Aphasia  poor language function due to brain damage, which makes understanding
and/or producing linguistic forms difficult.
�� � Broca s aphasia (motor aphasia)  reduced amount of speech, effortful and distorted
articulation, omission of functional morphemes.
�� � Wernicke s aphasia (sensory aphasia)  fluent speech, but difficult to make sense of.
�� � Anomia  difficulty in finding correct words.
�� � Conduction aphasia  damage to the arcuate fasciculus; disrupted rhythm of speech due
to pauses and hesitations
Dichotic listening test  experiment, which proves that language functions are located in left
hemisphere. Subject sits with earphones on and gets two different sound signals through each
earphone.
�� � right ear advantage  when the testee identifies correctly the sounds from right ear. The
signal goes to the right hemisphere earlier than this from left ear and is processed as first.
The right hemisphere - non-verbal sounds.
The left hemisphere  language sounds.
Critical period  the time of lateralization of the brain, which happens in early childhood.
The language acquisition then takes place. If a child doesn t acquire language during that
period, he will find it difficult to learnt it later on.
Str. 22
Genie  13-year-old, who in the 70s spend most of her life in a small closed room. She
contacted only for a few minutes with her mother while feeding. Any attempts of producing
sound were punished by her father.
She was unable to use language at first, but shortly she began to respond to the speech of
others and finally to communicate in spite of very simple syntax.
16 First language acquisition
All children, regardless of social and cultural background, have predispositions to acquire
language. They acquire language roughly at the same time along much the same schedule.
Basic requirements:
�� � interaction with other language users
�� � cultural transmission
�� � physical capabilities for producing language (hearing it at first)
Caretaker speech  simplified speech style adopted by people, who spend a lot of time
interacting with young children (frequent questions, exaggerated intonation, baby-talk).
Pre-language stages:
�� �  cooing  3-10 months  first sounds, with velar consonants such as [k] and [g] and high
vowels such as [i] and [u]
�� �  babbling  6 months  production of different vowels and consonants and their
combinations; the children use them to express emotions and emphasis
�� � one-word (single-unit, single-form, holophrastic) stage  12-18 months  children use
single words which function as phrases and sentences (juice = Give me some juice or
There is a juice on the table)
�� � two-word stage  18-20 months  children combine about 50 different words (the number
of them increases) to convey messages, such as mommy eat, baby chair
�� � telegraphic speech  2-3 years  producing multiple word utterances consisting mainly of
lexical morphemes (Andrew want ball, cat drink milk). Vocabulary expands to hundreds
of words and pronunciation becomes closer to that of adult.
Str. 23
�� � The acquisition process  children pick up the phrases and sentences and try them out,
imitating and subconsciously learning the adult language
Morphology:
About 3 years of age  children pick up some grammatical forms and tend to overgeneralize
 apply the single grammatical rule to all cases, without any exceptions (She goed)
Syntax:
Children understand what the adults are saying, but develop their own ways of expressing it.
Forming questions:
�� � Stage 1  adding wh- form to the beginning of the expression:
o Where kitty? Where horse go? Sit chair?
�� � Stage 2  more complex expressions, more wh- forms:
o What book name? Why you smiling? See my doggie?
�� � Stage 3  inversion of subject and verb:
o Can I have a piece? Will you help me? but sometimes Why kitty can t stand up?
Forming negatives:
�� � Stage 1  adding no or not on the beginning of any expression:
o No mitten, not a teddy bear, no sit there
�� � Stage 2  additional forms are used  don t, can t
o He no bite you, you can t dance, I don t know
�� � Stage 3  disappearance of stage 1 forms, other auxiliaries are used:
o I didn t caught it, She won t let go, He not taking it
Semantics:
It is not always possible to determine precisely the meanings which children attach to the
words they use. Sometimes children use overextension of meaning of the words on the basis
of the shape, sound, size, movements.
Str. 24
17 Second language acquisition/learning
Acquisition  development of language by using it naturally in communicate situations.
Children and people who spent a lot of time abroad acquire language.
Learning  conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the language. Maths is learnt.
Optimum age  10 to 16 years old  for learning a second language.
Affective filter  acquisition barrier that results from negative feelings or experiences:
�� � embarrassment
�� � unwillingness
�� � lack of empathy with other culture (eg. hatred)
�� � dull textbooks
�� � unpleasant classroom surroundings
Children are less limited by affective filter, adults can overcome it too.
Methods of teaching:
�� � grammar-translation method  long lists of words and grammar rules to be memorized,
focus on written form; traditional approach to Latin
�� � audiolingual method  emphasizing the spoken language, drills, developing  habits
�� � communicative approaches  focus on functions of language rather than form
(grammar), organizing lessons around certain topics
The learner:
�� � error  indicates the process of acquisition taking place rather than failure; it is a clue to
the progress made by a student
�� � creative construction  generating structures based on overgeneralization
�� � positive transfer of L1 knowledge  beneficial if L1 and L2 have similar features
�� � negative transfer (interference)  not effective for L2 communication if L1 features
differ from those of L2
Str. 25
Interlanguage  system used in L2 acquisition consisting of aspects of L1 and L2 but having
rules of its own.
Fossilisation  when learners develop features which do not match L2.
Motivation:
�� � those who experience some success are more motivated to learn
�� � learner who is willing to guess and take a risk is likely to be more successful
Input  language the learner is exposed to. It has to be comprehensible (foreigner talk 
simplified version of language).
Negotiated input  requesting clarification and active attention on what is said.
Output  language produced by the learner in meaningful interaction. Crucial point of task-
based learning and developing communicative competence.
Communicative competence  ability to use L2 accurately, appropriately and flexibly:
�� � grammatical competence  knowledge of accurate words and structures
�� � sociolinguistic competence  knowing which words to use in a particular social context
�� � strategic competence  ability to organize the message effectively and overcome
difficulties with conveying the meaning (using communicative strategy)
Applied linguistics  analyzing L2 learning from sociological, psychological, communicative
and educative point of view.
18 Sign language
�� � Alternate sign language  older concept of sign language as a limited set of gestures used
instead of real language; a system of gestures developed by speakers for limited
communication in specific context where speech can't be used (i.e. some religions,
Aborigines)
Str. 26
�� � Primary sign language  the first language of a group that doesn't have access to a
spoken language (e.g. ASL);
�� � Oralism  a teaching method for deaf people required that students practised English
speech sounds and developed lip reading skill (this method wasn't successful);
�� � ASL  American Sign Language (Ameslan)  kind of underground language used in
only deaf-deaf interaction; developed from French sign language used in Paris school in
XVIII century and then was brought to the USA;
o ASL as linguistic system  every feature found in spoken languages has a
counterpart in ASL; equivalent levels of phonology, morphology and syntax; natural
language (different dialects in different regions and historical changes); writing in
ASL in difficult, but possible;
�� � Signed English (Manually Coded English)  producing signs correspondingly to the
words in English sentence, in English word order;
o major aim: to prepare students to be able to read and write English and enable the
deaf take part in hearing world;
o designed to make the interaction between the deaf and the hearing community
easier;
o production of a sentence takes twice as long as in English or ASL;
�� � The structure of signs  linguistic forms of ASL involve 4 key aspects of visual
information = articulatory parameters of ASL (primes):
o shape  configuration of hands used in forming the sign;
o orientation  describes the fact that hand is palm up, e.g. not down;
o location  where we place hand first;
o movement  what kind of movement;
In addition to this, there are some non-manual components like: head-movement, eye-
movement, facial expression, fingerspelling (system of hand configurations used to
represent the letters of the alphabet);
Str. 27
19 Language history and change
Comparative reconstruction  reconstructing what must have been the original form in the
common ancestral language:
�� � majority principle  the majority of words retained the original sound and the minority
changed a little through time
�� � development principle  certain types of sound-change are very common, others very
unlikely
Old English  5th century AD
�� � spoke by tribes from northern Europe who invaded British Isles (Angles, Saxons, Jutes)
o many basic terms derived from it: man, woman, child, house
Str. 28
Middle English  11th century
�� � after arrival of Norman French in England and their victory at Hastings under William the
Conqueror in 1066
o terms like army, court, defense, prison, tax
Metathesis  reversal in position of two corresponding sounds (frist>first, hros>horse).
Epenthesis  addition of sound to the middle of a word (aemtig>empty, spinel>spindle)
Prothesis  addition of sound at the beginning of a word
Lexical changes:
�� � broadening of meaning (holyday  religious feast, now general break from work)
�� � narrowing (hound  once used for any kind of dog, now only for specific breeds)
Variation of language can be perceived diachronically (from historical perspective) as well
as synchronically (in terms of differences among different groups at the same time)
20 Language varieties
Standard English  used in newspapers, books and mass-media.
Accent  a manner of pronouncing the language. Everybody speaks with an accent of one
form or another.
Dialect  also involves the differences in writing.
Isogloss  boundary between the areas with one particular linguistic item.
NORMS  non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers.
Bilingualism  knowing two distinct languages.
Pidgin  variety of language developed for specific purposes, such as trading.
Str. 29
Creole  Pidgin, which evolved into first language of communication.
Basilect  basic variety of language.
Acrolect  variety closer to the external model.
Mesolect  slightly different variety.
The range of varieties  post-Creole continuum.
21 Language, society and culture
Sociolinguistics  deals with inter-relationships between language and society. It is connected
to anthropology (investigating the language and culture), sociology (language in social
groups), psychology (expressing attitudes and perceptions)
Social dialects  varieties of language used by groups according to class, education, age, sex
etc.
Age and gender:
�� � grandparents do not use the same words as their grandchildren
�� � female speakers ten to use more prestigious forms than males from the same social
background
�� � different pronunciations
�� � women discuss their personal feelings more than men
�� � men prefer to talk about non-personal topics such as sport and news
�� � men respond to problems by giving advice on solution, women respond by mentioning
personal experiences connected with the problem
�� � eliminating gender bias in general terms: spokesperson instead of spokesman
Str. 30
�� � BEV (Black English Vernacular)  widespread dialect of many African-Americans
o absence of copula: You crazy!
o double negative constructions: I can t get no sleep.
Idiolect  personal dialect of each individual speaker of a language.
Jargon  technical vocabulary connected with a special activity of group.
Diglossia  situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech
community.
Linguistic determinism  theory of language which states that  language determines
thought . We can think only in the categories which our language allows us to think in.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis  people of different languages perceive the world differently
from each other.
Language universals  common properties of all languages.