Clause relationships coordination and subordination, signals of coordination and subordination. Co-ordination of clauses The measure of grammatical completeness is the clause. The sentence consists of one or more grammatically complete clauses. Each clause contains the constituents that must be present according to the general rules for constructing clauses - subject, verb, and complements of the verb. Clauses can be combined in sentences. Clauses may be related through co- ordination or subordination. 1 Coordinated clauses Coordinated clauses are linked at the same grammatical level. Two or more clauses may be co-ordinated to form a sentence. Such a sentence is traditionally termed a compound sentence, and the co-ordinated clauses are the main clauses of the sentence. Example of a compound sentence consisting of two main clauses co-ordinated by and: The cause of ice ages is still a controversial subject, and debates continue about the precise climatic effects of individual cycles. Co-ordination of two main clauses Fig. 1 Co-ordination of two main clauses: The triangles represent the clauses, and M in the triangles stands for 'main clause'. 2 Co-ordination of three main clauses Crime was awful, test scores were low, and there was no enrollment in honors programs. The three co-ordinated clauses are on the same level of co- ordination, but often two of the co-ordinated clauses are more closely linked and as a pair they are co-ordinated with the remaining clause. Coordinating sentence parts When connecting sentence parts we decide which parts of each sentence to emphasize and why. The proper emphasis helps us communicate ideas in writing with strength and style. Sometimes we want to show that two or more ideas are equally important in a sentence. In such cases, we coordinate. Sentence coordination links ideas of equal importance. To coordinate is to bring together related independent clauses. 3 Coordinating sentence parts (2) Coordination usually involves using the right word or mark of punctuation (so called coordinating conjunction or simply coordinator, i.e. the words and, but, or) to show different relationships between ideas. When the co-ordinator is present the relationship is syndetic. It is asyndetic when the co-ordinators are not present but could be inserted. Ways of coordinating sentence parts There are four different ways to coordinate sentence parts: 1. Use a coordinating conjunction. 2. Use a pair of correlative conjunctions. 3. Use a semicolon. 4. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb. 4 Ways of coordinating sentence parts a) coordinating conjunctions The coordinating conjunction conveys the precise relationship between ideas. Each of the coordinating conjunctions has a different meaning, as the following chart shows: Coordinating Meaning Function conjunction and in addition to to link ideas but however to contrast ideas for as a result to show cause nor negative to reinforce negative or choice to show possibilities so therefore to show result yet however to show contrast or difference Ways of coordinating sentence parts b) a pair of correlative conjunctions To show a balance between two independent clauses we can link sentences with a pair of correlative conjunctions either . . . or neither . . . nor not only . . . but also both . . . and 5 Ways of coordinating sentence parts c) a semicolon Link independent clauses with a semicolon to show that the ideas are of equal importance. A cause is what happens; the effect is the result. The mechanic adjusted the carburetor; Tina s car now runs smoothly. Ways of coordinating sentence parts d) a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb There are many different conjunctive adverbs. Some are single words; others are phrases: therefore, consequently, furthermore, nevertheless, as a result , for example, however, nonetheless, in addition A semicolon and a conjunctive adverb together indicate different relationships, depending on the conjunctive adverb. The relationships are chiefly examples, continuation, and contrast. I adore chili; unfortunately, it doesn t adore me! The invention of air-conditioners has greatly influenced major migration trends; for example, Sunbelt cities such as Phoenix, Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston would never have grown as successfully without air-conditioning. 6 Uncoordinated vs. coordinated - examples Uncoordinated: The dog s fur was tangled. We took her in for grooming. Coordinated: The dog s fur was tangled, so we took her in for grooming. The dog s fur was tangled; therefore, we took her in for grooming. The dog s fur was tangled; as a result, we took her in for grooming. Uncoordinated: Jack lost his briefcase. Jack lost his cell phone. Coordinated: Jack lost both his briefcase and his cell phone. Jack lost not only his briefcase but also his cell phone. Subordinating sentence parts Subordination is connecting two unequal but related clauses with a subordinating conjunction to form a complex sentence. Subordination shows the relationship between ideas of unequal rank. When you subordinate one part of a sentence to another, you make the dependent clause develop the main clause. A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence, so it cannot stand alone. Dependent clauses add additional information to the main clauses, but they are not necessary to complete the thought. 7 Subordinating conjunctions A dependent clause often starts with a subordinating conjunctions, i.e. word that makes the clause unable to stand alone, e.g. after, although, because, before, if, though, since, when, till, unless, wherever, where. Subordinating conjunction Relationship as, because cause, reason whether, rather than, than choice even if, if, unless, provided that condition though, even though, although contrast so, so that, in order that, that effect, result wherever, where location since, until, when, while, after, before, once, whenever time Subordinated vs. not subordinated clauses - examples Not subordinated: It snowed all night. School was closed the following day. Subordinated: Because it snowed all night, school was closed the following day. Since it snowed all night, school was closed the following day. Not subordinated: A tornado can pick up a house and drop it hundreds of feet away. These are extremely dangerous storms. Subordinated: Since a tornado can pick up a house and drop it hundreds of feet away, these are extremely dangerous storms. 8 The main clause vs. the dependent clause We can not switch the main clause and the dependent clause when we subordinate. If we put the main idea in a dependent clause, our sentences will not be logical: Because people stared at her, Rikki wore a see- through blouse. is illogical (cause and effect are reversed, so the sentence doesn t make sense). It becomes logical when we rearrange the order: Because Rikki wore a see-through blouse, people stared at her. Signals of subordination There are two types of signals that a clause is subordinate: the identity of the initial item in the clause the nature of the verb phrase or its absence. 9 Signals of subordination a) the identity of the initial item in the clause A clause is subordinate if it is introduced by a subordinator (or subordinating conjunction) such as if, because, and although. Certain subordinate clauses are introduced by wh-words. Some of these wh- words are used only with subordinate clauses; for example: whoever, whatever, however. Others may also be used with interrogative main clauses; for example: who, which, when, where, why, how. The subordinators as, that, and though are exceptional in that they occasionally do not come at the beginning of their clauses That may be either a subordinator like whether [a] or a relative pronoun like which [b]: [a] We decided that we would work together [b] [. . .] I very much enjoyed the work that I was involved in As a subordinator, that can usually be omitted ('zero that') when its clause is not functioning as subject: [a1] We decided we would work together. In [a1] there is no overt signal of subordination for the complement we would work together, but we could point to the option of inserting the subordinator that. Signals of subordination b) the nature of the verb phrase If the verb in a clause is non-finite (i.e. not marked for tense and/or number and/or person as in [c]) or if there is no verb (as in [d]), the clause is generally subordinate [c] She paused, sighed winsomely, looking aged. [d] He began running, feeling light and purposeful, scarcely seeming to touch the pavement with his feet, his heart strong and amazingly compliant with his sudden awakening. 10 Three major forms of subordinate clauses 1. finite clause, whose verb is a finite verb (i.e. marked for tense and/or number and/or person): [1] When we were walking over the bridge Mary Jane stopped to take a shot of a woman on the other side of the road who was dragging a child along by the hand. 2. non-finite clause, whose verb is a non-finite verb (i.e. not marked for tense and/or number and/or person the verb may have the ing participle form, - ed participle form, the to infinitive form, or the bare infinitive form): [2] To test the belt tension, press the belt down at a point midway on the longest run between pulleys, using firm thumb pressure. 3. verbless clause, which does not have a verb: [3] In accordance with the principles of direct play the ball should be thrown forward where possible. Functions of subordinate clauses - four major types 1. nominal clauses, which can have a range of functions similar to those of nouns and noun phrases (i.e. subject, object or complement) 2. relative clauses, which postmodify noun phrases 3. adverbial clauses, which can have a range of functions similar to adverb phrases or prepositional phrases when these function as adverbials 4. comparative clauses, which together with the comparative items more, less, or as or the comparative inflection -er function as intensifiers 11 Functions of subordinate clauses - nominal (noun) clauses All nominal clauses may have the following two functions in a host clause: 1. Subject: Mastering this technique can be a lot of fun. 2. Complement of a verb, chiefly as direct object: I've never wanted to be a writer at all. Most nominal clauses may also function as: 3. Complement of an adjective: I'm not quite sure if that's right actually 4. Complement of a preposition You seem to have a capacity for handling stress. 5. Complement of a noun Police say they can't confirm a TV report that the building had been hit by automatic fire Functions of subordinate clauses - relative clauses Relative clauses postmodify noun phrases. They can be restrictive (those that identify which person or thing, of several, is being referred to [1]) or nonrestrictive (those which simply add further information about the noun they postmodify [2]): [1] The test paper which everyone took was too difficult. Several tests were taken, one was failed by everyone and this one was too difficult. [2] We can send two representatives and additional observers (who can participate but not vote). Relative clauses begin with one of the relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that. 12 Functions of subordinate clauses - adverbial clauses (1) Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that describe a verb, adjective, or other adverb. An adverb clause answers these questions: Where? Why? When? To what extent? Under what condition? In what manner? You can place an adverb clause in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. Functions of subordinate clauses - adverbial clauses (2) We can distinguish adverbial clauses of: Time introduced by such subordinators as: after, when, once, while, as, until Wait until you are called. Place - introduced by where or wherever I don t know where we did it. Condition - introduced by if and unless, provided, on condition, providing (that) If she agrees, we ll get married. Concession - introduced by whereas, while Mr Mikołajczak teaches Grammar, while Mr Jędryka teaches Phonetics. Exception - introduced by except, except that, save, only I would tell you why now, except that really I don t know. 13 Functions of subordinate clauses - adverbial clauses (3) Reason - introduced by because, since, as, for I lent him the money because he needed it. Purpose introduced by in order to, so as to Students should take notes so as to male revision later. Result introduced by so that and so I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage. Similarity and comparison - introduced by as, like in which the verb refers to the manner in which something is / was done Please do as I said. It was like I imagined. Preference - introduced by rather than, sooner than with the bare infinitive Rather than study English syntax, I d take a walk with a beautiful girl. Functions of subordinate clauses - comparative clauses Comparative clauses (as& as, & -er than & ) they are clauses in which a proposition expressed in the main clause is compared with a proposition in the subordinate clause. Comparative clauses are introduced by the subordinators than or as. The comparison is with respect to some STANDARD OF COMPARISON: eg. health Jane is as healthy as her sister (is). 14 Clause relationships - summary Clauses can be combined in sentences. Clauses may be related through co- ordination or subordination. Coordinated clauses are linked at the same grammatical level. Subordination is connecting two unequal but related clauses with a subordinating conjunction to form a complex sentence. Subordination shows the relationship between ideas of unequal rank. 15