forms of concentration the landed property in italy

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>A=>20=88 :>;>=88 2 >=>=88 ;538>=5@C =0@570;8 50 N35@>2, 2A04=8:C 70 N35@>2; 2 :28;55
;538>=5@C 4020;8 50 N35@>2, F5=BC@8>=C 100 N35@>2, 2A04=8:C 140 N35@>2 (Livius. 37, 57, 7;
40, 34, 1). 2AQ @02=> MB> A>AB02;O;> ;8HL 5% 2A59 �>1I5AB25==>9 75<;8 ager publicus (A<. T.
Frank, 1940, v. I, p. 124). >MB>AC40@AB2> 8<5;> 2>7<>6=>ABL ?CAB8BL >AB02H85AO 95% 75<;8 2
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@01>G59 A8;K 8 ?>MB>B5;8 8 <>3;8 >::C?8@>20BL ?>4 A2>8 E>7O9AB20 CG0AB:8 ager publicus.
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3>AC40@AB25==>9 75<;5 GQB:> 70D8:A8@>20=0 2 8AB>G=8:0E (Cicero. De Officiis, II, 89; Columella. VI,
praef. 4-6). 4=0:> =0A 8=B5@5AC5B @0728B85 AB@C:BC@K B>;L:> 75<;545;LG5A:8E E>7O9AB2.
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(234 BC - 149 BC), :>B>@K5 >= 8 87>1@078; A A2>Q< B@0:B0B5. = 2;045; =51>;LH8< ?@83>@>4=K<
>;82:>2>< ?><5ABL5< ?>4 8<><, 2>7<>6=> >BF>2A:8< 8<5=85< 2 !018=88 (Cato. 7-9), <0A;8G=K<
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12-13) 8 28=>3@04=K< ?><5ABL5< 2 078=5 2 100 N35@>2 (Cato. 11). 1I0O ?;>I04L 2A5E 8<5=89 =5
?@52KH05B 500 N35@>2 (125 30), B0:8< >1@07><, ?5@54 =0<8 :@C?=>5 75<5;L=>5 2;045=85 =0 ?@020E
?>;=>9 :28@8BA:>9 A>1AB25==>AB8, => 8<5NI55 �@0AA5O==CN AB@C:BC@C. #25;8G5=85 75<5;L=>9
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8<55B ?@>D8;L=CN :C;LBC@C, 2K1@0AK205: 1>30BKE 3>@>4>2. A5 @0A?>;>65=K 2
<=>3>;N4=KE <5AB0E, @O4>< A <>@5<, A @5:>9, 8;8 2 ?@83>@>45 (Cato. 1, 3). 064>5 ?@54AB02;O5B
A>1>9 02B>=><=CN E>7O9AB25==CN 548=8FC, ?;>I04LN >B 100 4> 200 N35@>2, A> A2>59 2=CB@5==59
>@30=870F859 8 A>1AB25==K< 10;0=A><. A5 8<5=8O ?>;=>ABLN 8 AB0=40@B=> C:>20=K
:0: 8=25=B0@Q<, 8=AB@C<5=B><, @01>G8< A:>B><, B0: 8 @01A:>9 @01>G59 A8;>9 2 :>;8G5AB25 11-14
@01>2, 8 =0E>4OBAO ?>4 C?@02;5=85< 28;8:0 8 53> 65=K - 28;8:8, >B25G0NI59 70 DC=:F8>=8@>20=85
CA04L1K (Cato. 10-11; 142-143). A5 @01>BK ?@>872>4OBAO A>1AB25==K<8 A8;0<8, B>;L:> ?@8
A1>@5 C@>60O ?@82;5:0NBAO =0Q<=8:8 8;8 0@5=40B>@K (Cato. 136; 144-147). 8:0:>3> ?>1>G=>3>
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28;;K.
83> 2@5<5=8, > :>B>@>9 5ABL A2545=8O - !F8?8>= !B0@H89, -<8;89 025;, !F8?8>=
-<8;80=, 0@: .=89 @CB, 59 5;89 B0:65 8<55B ?> =5A:>;L:> @071@>A0==KE 40;5:> 4@C3 >B
4@C30 �:0B>=>2A:8E 28;;. 5@54 =0<8 >1I55 O2;5=85, 0 8<5==>, @0AA5O==0O 45F5=B@0;87>20==0O
AB@C:BC@0 :@C?=>9 75<5;L=>9 A>1AB25==>AB8. 064>5 8<5=85 ?>:C?05BAO ?>A;54>20B5;L=> 2A;54
70 4@C38<, 157> 2AO:>9 ?@82O7:8 : ?@56=8< E>7O9AB20<, ;8HL ?> <5@5 C25;8G5=8O 4>E>40, :>B>@K9
B0:8< >1@07>< 8 :0?8B0;878@C5BAO. <5=8O =5 B>;L:> =5 A2O70=K 4@C3 A 4@C3><, =>, 8, 2 :>=5G=><
8B>35, =587156=> :>=:C@8@CNB 4@C3 A 4@C3>< =0 @K=:5 (Cicero. De Lege Agraria, II, 30, 82; C78I8= .
., 1976, AB@. 34-39).
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Epistulae Morales, 88, 10; 89, 20; 90, 39. Valerius Maximus. IV, 4, 7; Seneca. De Beneficiic, VII, 10, 4;
Petronius. Satyricon, 37; 48; 53; 76; 77).
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<>3 ;53:> ?@8<5=8BL ?>4>1=K9 <>4C;L 2 A2>Q< 8<5=88 A CGQB>< 53> ?;>I048 (Columella. I, 3, 2; I, 3,
10; IV, 3, 2-3; IV, 23, 1-2, VI, 2; VIII, 12, 10; IX, 1, 3; XII, 18, 2; XII, 52, 12).
;NG520O ?@>1;5<0 ;N1>9 :@C?=>9 A>1AB25==>AB8 A>AB>8B 2 ?>8A:5 8 ?@82;5G5=88 �A2>1>4=>9
@01>G59 A8;K, 682>3> B@C40, 81> �& =8 701>B0 > 74>@>2L5 G5;>25:0, =8 <>@5?;020=85, =8 A1>@ 8
A>E@0=5=85 E;51>2 8 4@C38E 75<=KE ?;>4>2 =5 1K;8 1K 2>7<>6=K 157 G5;>25G5A:>3> B@C40 (Cicero.
De Officiis, II, III, 12-15). !?>A>1>< ?@8A>548=5=8O 2B>@>3> : ?5@2>AB0B>G=>3> :>;8G5AB20 8
=5>1E>48<>9 :20;8D8:0F88, <>6=> >?@545;8BL 2 :>=5G=>< 8B>35 8 A?>A>1 ?@>872>4AB20. 2B>@>5,
8 ?5@2>5 @072820NBAO 2 8AB>@8G5A:>< 2@5<5=8, ?>4B0;:820O, AB8@07=>>1@07=K5 D>@A;8 ;0B8DC=488, :0: 548=>3> F5=B@0;87>20==>3> A/E ?@54?@8OB8O, B> >=0
AB0=>28BAO 2>7<>6=>9 8 @50;87C5<>9 2 I 25:5 AD 87-70 ACI5AB2>20=8O AB018;L=>3> @K=:0 @01>2,
?@>H54H53> : B>@8G5A:89 ?CBL. 59AB28B5;L=>, 15AA
A:C?0BL 75<;N, :0?8B0;878@>20BL 2 =5Q 2A5 A2>8 4>E>4K, 5A;8 =5 2848HL OA=>3>, ?>=OB=>3> 8
4>ABC?=>3> @575@2C0@0 @01>G59 A8;K.
0B8DC=48O AB0=>28BAO =5>1E>48<>9 3;02=K< >1@07>< ?>B> �:0B>=>2:0O 28;;0 C65
>G5284=> =5 <>65B ?@5>4>;5BL 4>AB83=CBK9 ?@545;, A2>N �B>G:C =0AKI5=8O. 0 =51>;LH><
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?@>872>48B5;L=KE @01>2. "@51>20;0AL M:>=><8G5A:0O ?@>872>4AB25==0O AB@C:BC@0 A ?@8=F8?80;L=>
8=K<8 ?@>?>@F8O<8 8 <0AHB010<8.
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1) =8E <>6=> ?@8<5=8BL 1>;55 CA>25@H5=AB2>20==CN >@30=870F8N B@C40 =0 >A=>25 >3@><=KE
A>B5==KE :>;;5:B82>2 ?@>872>48B5;L=KE @01>2. 45AL ;53G5 4>18BLAO >B40G8 70 AGQB B>G=KE
?@>?>@F89 A>548=5=8O :20;8D8F8@>20==KE 8 =5:20;8D8F8@>20==KE @01>B=8:>2 (?0E0@8,
28=>3@040@8, @07=>@01>G85-mediastinus, ?0ABCE8 8 ?@.), 70 AGQB @0F8>=0;L=>3> @0A?@545;5=8O
;N459 8 @01>B ?> @07=K< CG0AB:0<, 2708<>70<5=O5<>AB8 8 ?5@51@>A:5 ;N459 A CG0AB:0 =0 CG0AB>:
(Columella. I, 9, 6 8 8). :@C3;Q==>ABL 8<5=8O C?@>I05B 8 C45H52;O5B ?5@5<5I5=85 ?> =5Secundi. Epistularum, III, 19, 2).
2) ;0B8DC=488 ;53:> C<5=LH8BL 04<8=8AB@0B82=K9 8 >1A;C6820NI89 0??0@0B, B0: :0: =C6=0 2A53>
>4=0 F5=B@0;L=0O CA04L10. ;8=89 ;04H89, @074C59 ;0B8DC=488 A>A54=NN
2 2000-3000 N35@>2, ?@54?>;0305B 2 >1J548=Q==>< E>7O9AB25 >AB028BL >4=>3> ?@>:C@0B>@0 8 ?>GB8
B5E 65 ?>4@CG=KE, 254L 3>@074> 2K3>4=55 2AQ A>1@0BL 2 >4=>< <5AB5, 0 =5 @071@0AK20BL ?> @07=K<
(Plini Secundi. Epistularum, III, 19, 2-3).
>;C<5;;0 ?@0:B8G5A:8 >?8AK205B B0:CN CA04L1C, 2:;NG0NICN 2 A51O 8 A:>B=K9 42>@. #A04L1>9
C?@02;O5B >4=0 28;8:0, ?>4 :>=B@>;5< :>B>@>9 =0E>4OBAO :CE0@:0, :;04>2I8: 8 A;C38, A;54OI85
70 4><><, 0 B0:65 ?0ABCE8 (Columella. XII, 6-9). 40==>< 0A?5:B5 4>AB0B>G=> A@02=8BL >4=C
;0B8DC=48N ?;>I04LN 2500 N35@>2 A> HB0B>< 2 100 ?@>872>48B5;L=KE @01>2 8 9 28;; A ?;>I04LN
250 N35@>2 8 A 11-N ?@>872>48B5;L=K<8 @010<8 2 :064>9. ?5@2>< A;CG05 =C6=> 8<5BL 1 CA04L1C,
1 28;8:0, 1 28;8:C, 1 AC128;8:0/0:B>@0, 8, A:065<, 5IQ 5-7 G5;>25: >1A;C6820NI8E CA04L1C 8 >4=>3>
A<>B@8B5;O 70 M@30ABC;>< - 2A53> ?>@O4:0 11 G5;>25:. > 2B>@>< A;CG05 ?>;CG05BAO 9 CA0451 8
<8=89. 8<;O=5 ?@5:@0A=> ?>=8<0;8 MBC =5E8B@CN
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3) ;0B8DC=48OE <>6=> ?@8<5=OBL <0H8=K (Plinius. Naturalis Historiae, XVIII, 67, 10; 72, 1) 8 25AB8
<=>3>?@>D8;L=>5 E>7O9AB2>. (8@>:> 8725AB=0O M?83@0<<0 ?@>A;02;O;0 2>4O=CN <5;L=8FC, 81> B0
>1;53G0;0 @01>BC @01K=O<-<>;0<.
>6=> 1K;> >?B>< 70:C?0BL =0 AB>@>=5 8 E@0=8BL =5>1E>48BCB 8<5;8AL 2 2-E M:751K ?@8 ?>;><:5 =5 >AB0=02;820BL @01>B, �B0: :0: >B7K2 A
@01>BK @01>2 >1E>48BAO 4>@>65, G5< AB>OB 25I8 ?>4>1=>3> @>40 (Columella. XI, 20). >6=>
@0728BL ?@>ABK5 @51>G=K5
?@>1KGC 8725AB8, 3;8=K, ?5A:0. >B;8G85 >B =51>;LH8E 28;; 2 ;0B8DC=48OE <>6=>
4020BL >B4KE 75<;5 ?> G0ABO< 8;8 225AB8 42C?>;L5 (Servius. Georgic, II, 412; Plinius. Naturalis
Historiae, XVIII, 187). >?>;=8B5;L=K5 ?@>872>48B5;L=K5 2>7<>6=>AB8 ?@54>AB02;O;8 @5:0, >75@>,
;5A.
4) 0 AGQB =5>1@010BK2051=KE CG0AB:>2 A0;LBCA0 <>6=> 1571>;57=5==>
4;O @01>2;045;LF0 2K45;8BL @01A:85 ?5:C;88, A45;0BL 8E =5 �?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8 :0: C 0B>=0, 0
@50;L=K<8, 8, B5< A0740BL 4>?>;=8B5;L=K5 AB81@>A>25AB=>9 @01>BK. 50;L=K9
?5:C;89 >?@545;O5BAO :0: =5GB>, GB> E>7O8= 2K45;O5B @01C 87 A2>59 A>1AB25==>AB8 8;8 8<5=8O,
GB>1K @01 A0<>AB>OB5;L=> 2Q; =0 MB>9 4>;5 AGQB ?@8E>4>2 8 @0AE>4>2, B.5. A>1AB25==K9 10;0=A,
8 B0:>9 @01 AG8B0;AO C65 ?>AB>@>==8< :>;>=>< (Digesta. XI, 1, 4; XXXIII, 7, 12; 3, 20, 1). >=8<0O
A?5F8D8:C @01A:>3> B@C40 8 =047>@0 70 =8<, 2 40;L=8E 8<5=8OE ;8=89 ;04H89, 0;L?C@=89
$010B ;53:> >B?CA:0;8 8E =0 2>;N A ?5:C;85< 8, 4065, A A>45@60=85<, C25;8G820O B5< A0?>B5=F80; A2>8E 8<5=89 (Plini Secundi. Epistularum, III, 19, 7; VII, 16 8 32; VIII, 16, 1; Columella. I, 7, 6).
0A?@>AB@0=Q==>Q <=5=85, 1C4B> 2 ;0B8DC=48OE @01>B0;0 <0AA0 70:>20==KE @01>2 8 87-70 MB>3>
B@51>20;>AL ?@>3@5AA82=> C25;8G820BL 8 C25;8G820BL G8A;> =04A<>B@I8:>2, GB> 8 ?@825;> :
?045=8N 8E @5=B015;L=>AB8 >A=>2K205BAO =0 8725AB=>< ?0AA065 8AA;54>20B5;O @01AB20 2 !(:
�A;8 E0@0:B5@ @01>BK B@51C5B @0A?@545;5=8O @01>2 =0 1>;LH5< ?@>AB@0=AB25, B> G8A;>
=04A<>B@I8:>2, 0 ?>B>4 =0 2>7=03@0645=85 B@C40, 2K7K205<>3> MB8< =047>@><,
4>;6=K A>>B25BAB25==> 2>7@0AB8 (Cairnes J. E., 1862, AB@. 44). -B0 845O 1K;0 ?>4E20G5=0 8
45B0;L=> @07@01>B0=0 ;CGH8<8 A>25BA:8<8 CGQ=K<8, B0:8<8 :0: . . C78I8= 8 . . (B05@<0=.
, B5< =5 <5=55, >=0 =>A8B C<>7@8B5;L=K9 E0@0:B5@, 81> 2 8AB>G=8:0E B0:>9 ?@>1;5=5 2AB@5G05BAO. 5=B015;L=>ABL ;0B8DC=488 BCB A@02=8205BAO A @5=B015;L=>ABLN :>;>=0B0
8;8 �:0B>=>2A:>9 28;;K. > 8 ?@8 :>;>=0B5 B@51C5BAO @0725B2;Q==K9 HB0B 04<8=8AB@0F88 -
A;548BL 70 @01>B0<8 :>;>=>2, >BA;56820BL ?>;><:8 8=25=B0@O, 25AB8 CGQB ?>ABC?0NI59 @5=BK 8,
4065, ?><>30BL 8<. B> 8 2 �:0B>=>2A:8E 28;;0E 1K;8 70:>20==K5 @01K, 8,
A;54>20B5;L=>, B0< B>65 =C65= 1K; 5A;8 =5 M@30ABC;, B> =5:0O 82878@>20==0O BN@L<0 8;8
A?5F80;L=>5 ?><5I5=85. !>1AB25==> M@30ABC; 2>2A5 =5 O2;O;AO 8<<0=5=B=>9 ?@8=04;56=>ABLN
;0B8DC=488 (Plini Secundi. Epistularum, III, 19, 7). 'B> 65 :0A05BAO C?@02;O5<>AB8 A>B5==KE <0AA
@01>G8E :>;;5:B82>2, B> 7040G0 @5H0;0AL ?@>ABK< @0745;5=85< =0 1@8304K ?> 10 G5;>25:, 2> 3;025
A> �AB0@H8< @01>< (Columella. I, 9, 7-8).
0@0AB0=85 :@878A=KE B5=45=F89 2=CB@8 ;0B8DC=488 8<5NB A>25@H5==> 8=>Q A>45@60=85.
-:A?0=A8O ;0B8DC=489 ?8B05BAO 70 AGQB =587156=>3> A>:@0I5=8O <5;:8E ?0@F5;;O@=KE E>7O9AB2,
81> 4;O F5=B@0;870F88 1>;LH5 27OBL 75<;N =5>B:C40. 4=0:>, :0: 1K;> ?>:070=> 2KH5,
@01>2;045;LG5A:89 A?>A>1 ?@>872>4AB20, 1C4L >= 2 D>@<5 �:0B>=>2A:8E 28;; 8;8 ;0B8DC=489,
<>65B ACI5AB2>20BL B>;L:> 2 A@545 AB018;L=>9 <0AAK ?0@F5;;O@=KE E>7O9AB2. ;O II I 25:0 BC
2 0F8C<5, -B@C@88, 020=> B>;L:> 10% E>7O9AB2, :>B>@K5
<>6=> >?@545;8BL :0: @01>2;045;LG5A:85 28;;K (Green K. 1986, p. 67, 69, 103-109). '8ABK9
@01>2;045;LG5A:89 A?>A>1 ?@>872>4AB20 A 42CA=>2=K<8 :;0AA0<8 @01>2 8 @01>2;045;LF52
=52>7<>65= 2 ?@8=F8?5. @8GQ< ?0@F5;;O@=K5 E>7O9AB20 4>;6=K 4020BL =5 <5=55 2/3 � 2A53>
�20;>2>3> ?@>4C:B0, >?@545;OO B5< A025=L >1I5AB25==>9 AB>8<>AB8. 0@F5;;O@=K5
E>7O9AB20 B0:65 A=0160NB @01>2;045;LG5A:85 E>7O9AB20 =0Q<=>9 @01>G59 A8;>9 2 3>@OGCN ?>@C.
>MB> 2K7K205B 8 >1@0B=K9 ?@>F5AA, :>=B@?@>F5AA
�2>AAB0=>2;5=8O ?0@F5;;O@=KE E>7O9AB2, => =0 >A=>25 0@5=4K, :>;>=0B0, ?@5:0@8O, ?5:C;8O.
@54?>;0305BAO, GB> G8AB> @01>2;045;LG5A:85 ;0B8DC=488 ?@>ACI5AB2>20;8 =54>;3>, 5A;8 B0:>2K5
2>>1I5 2AB@5G0;8AL. "0: @0AA<0B@820O 20@80=BK :><18=0F89 @01>G59 A8;K 2 @07=KE 8<5=8OE,
>;C<5;;0 3>2>@8B > :>;>=0E (Columella. I, 7). 0B8DC=48N 65 I-II 25:0 AD 7O9AB2><
7=0G8B5;L=> �202H8< 2 AB>@>=C :>;>=0B0, 70G0B>G=K5 D>@B>@>3> 1K;8 8725AB=K 2
8<5 87402=0. -B> 2K@0605BAO A >4=>9 AB>@>=K 2 2>7=8:=>25=88 0@5=4=KE 8 ?@5:0@=KE >B=>H5=89
A @07>@ONI8<8AO ?0@F5;;O@=K<8 :@5ABLO=0<8. >;6=8:, =0?@8<5@, 70:;04K20; A2>9 CG0AB>:, 0
70B5< 8A?@0H820; 53> >1@0B=> 2 ?@5:0@=>5 2;045=85 401K ?@>4>;60BL >1@010BK20BL (Digesta.
XLIII, 26, 6, 4), ;81> 1@0; CG0AB>: 2 0@5=4C. A 4@C3>9, 2 @>AB5 G8A;0 >B?CI5==8:>2 8 @01>2 87 A0<8E
;0B8DC=489, :>B>@KE C4>1=55 8 2K3>4=55 2A53> B@0=AD>@<8@>20BL 2 :2078:>;>=>2 =0 ?5:C;88 8;8 2
?@5:0@8AB>2 ?@O<> =0 <5AB5.
:0G5AB25 ?@8<5@0 2AB@5G=>3> ?@>F5AA0 �2>AAB0=>2;5=8O <5;:>3> E>7O9AB20 <>6=> ?@825AB8 >4=C
87 ;0B8DC=489 ;8=8O ;04H53> ?>4 "8D5@=>< 2 -B@C@88 2@5<5=8 8@0 "@0O=0 (:>=. I - =0G.
II AD). Q @07<5@ 1>;55 5000 N35@>2, ?@54?>;>68B5;L=> >:>;> 8-10 BKA. N35@>2 548=K< :><,
=0 :>B>@>< @072Q@=CB> <0:A8<0;L=> F5=B@0;87>20==>5 E>7O9AB2>. !>A54AB2> 3>@>40 "8D5@=C<,
E>@>H0O 4>@>30, 0 2 4@C38E A;CG0OE @5:0 "81@, 3>2>@OB > =5>1E>48G=KE :><(Plini Secundi. Epistularum, I, 24, 3; V, 6, 12). #A;>2=> ;0B8DC=480;L=>5 E>7O9AB2> ;8=8O ;04H53>
<>6=> ?@54AB028BL 2 2845 4-E G0AB59.
1.
!>1AB25==> @01>2;045;LG5A:0O G0ABL E>7O9AB20, :>B>@>5 C?@02;O5BAO 04<8=8AB@0F859
8<5=8O, 8 2 :>B>@>< @01>B0NB @01K. #1>@:0 C@>60O >ACI5AB2;O5BAO A2>8<8 A8;0<8,
A ?@82;5G5=85< 3>@>4A:8E @01>2, 8 ?>4 :>=B@>;5< @01>2;045;LF0 (Plini Secundi.
Epistularum. IX, 20, 2).
'0ABL C@>60O =0 :>@=N A40QBAO ?>4@O4>< B.=. =53>F80B>@0<, :>B>@K5 2=>AOB 70;>3
?>4 A45;:C 8 ?@82>4OB =0 A1>@ A2>8E @01>2 (Cato. 144, 3-4; 145, 1; Plini Secundi.
Epistularum. VIII, 2, 1-4).
2.
'0ABL E>7O9AB20, A40205<0O :@C?=K< 0@5=40B>@0< - :>=4C:B>@0< (conductors).
>=4C:B>@K 25@>OB=> 15@CB 2 0@5=4C =0 5 ;5B CG0AB:8 >B 50 4> 200 N35@>2 (Plini
Secundi. Epistularum. VII, 30, 2-3) 8 >1@010BK20NB 8E A ?><>ILN A2>8E @01>2
(Columella. I, 7, 3; Siculus Flaccus. De Condicionibus Agrorum, CAR, s. 127).
#A;>28O 0@5=4K, 2848<>, :0: C 0B>=0 - 50% =0 50%, => E>7O8= 4>;65= ?@54>AB028BL
8=25=B0@L, 2:;NG0O A:>B 2<5AB5 A :>@<><, 8 G0ABL CA04L1K (Cato. 137).
>=4C:B>@A:0O 0@5=40 �8A:;NG05B 0@5=4>20==CN 75<;N 87 ;0B8DC=488, 70
=5Q ?;0B8BAO B>;L:> @5=B0. -B8 0@5=4=K5 >B=>H5=8O 2 G0AB8 >B=>H5=89 <564C
;M=4;>@4>< 8 :>=4C:B>@>< AE>68 A A>2@5<5==K<8, GB> >B<5G0; 8 0@; 0@:A 4;O
!8F8;88, 1K2H59 75@=>2K< ?@840B:>< 8<0 (0@; 0@:A. 0?8B0;, B. III, B45; 6,
;020 47. !>G. B. 25, G. II, AB@. 350).
3.
'0ABL E>7O9AB20, A40205<0O <5;:8< 0@5=40B>@0<, �A0<>AB>OB5;L=K< :;0AA8G5A:8<
:>;>=0<. -B> <5AB=K5 A5;O=5, C@>65=FK >:@5AB=KE <5AB, A?>A>1=K5 2K?;0G820BL
45=56=CN 8;8 =0BC@0;L=CN @5=BC 8 ?>B>A>1=K5 <5=OBL 75<;52;045;LF0
(Columella. I, 7, 1-4; Plini Secundi. Epistularum. X, 8, 5). >7<>6=>ABL A<5=K
;0B8DC=48AB0 3>2>@8B > =0;8G85 C =8E 5IQ A>1AB25==>3> E>7O9AB20 A CA04L1>9,
?>MB>;>=0B O2;O5BAO ?@80@5=4>20=85< 75<;8.
%>7O9AB25==0O 45OB5;L=>ABL :>;>=>2 =>A8B ?>;=>ABLN 02B>=><=K9 8
A0<>AB>OB5;L=K9 E0@0:B5@. 540@>< ?> <=5=8N @0==8E N@8AB>2 015>=0 8 530A0,
=5 B>;L:> ?>AB>@>==89 :>;>=, => 8 @01, =0E>482H89AO =0 ?>;>65=88 :>;>=0, =5 2E>48;
2 ?>=OB85 8=25=B0@O 8<5=8O (Digesta. XXXIII, 7, 12, 3; 7, 20, 1).
4.
'0ABL E>7O9AB20, =0 :>B>@>< A84OB �=5A0<>AB>OB5;L=K5 ?0@F80@=K5
:>;>=K, =5A?>A>1=K5 157 <0B5@80;L=>9 ?><>I8 75<;52;045;LF0 >15A?5G8BL
DC=:F8>=8@>20=85 A2>53> =045;0, 8 ?>B>;55 8 1>;55 ?@82O7K20553> 8<5=8N (Plini Secundi. Epistularum. III, 19, 6-7; IX, 37, 2-4). MBC :0B53>@8N <>6=>
>B=5AB8 ?@5:0@8AB>2 8 :2078-:>;>=>2, B.5. >B?CI5==8:>2 ?>A065==KE =0 75<;N
;0B8DC=488.
!40==K5 2 0@5=4C 75<;8 (:0B53>@88 2, 3, 4) ?@8=>AOB ;8=8N @5=BC ?>@O4:0 400 000 A5AB5@F852 2
3>4; 2 459AB28B5;L=>AB8 GCBL <5=LH5 87-70 A:84>: 8 =54>8<>: (Plini Secundi. Epistularum, X, 8, 5).
">340 8AE>4O 87 F5=K 1 BKA. A5AB5@F89 70 N35@ 8 =>@<5 ?@81K;8 2 6%-8% 3>4>2KE, 4>E>4=>ABL 2A53>
B8D5@=A:>3> 8<5=8O <>6=> >F5=8BL =0 C@>2=5 600 000 A5AB5@F89 2 3>4.
-B8 F8D@K 40NB E>BO 8 3@C1>5, => >BGQB;82>5 ?@54AB02;5=85 > A>>B=>H5=88 <564C @5=B=>9 8
@01>2;045;LG5A:>9 G0ABO<8 E>7O9AB20 ;8=8O ;04H53>. =CB@5==OO AB@C:BC@0 ;0B8DC=488
D8:A8@C5B :0:8< >1@07>< @0AH8@5=85 ;0B8DC=488 =0B0;:8205BAO =0 ?0@F5;;O@=>5 75<;52;045=85,
E>BO 8 2 D>@<5 @>AB0 0@5=4K, :>;>=0B0, ?@5:0@8O.
" #
>340 F5AA :>=F5=B@0F88 A>1AB25==>AB8 2 0=B8G=>< <8@5, 2A5340 2>7=8:05B
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M:A?@>?@80F8O <5;:8E ?@>872>48B5;59 2 CA;>28OE 3>A?>4AB20 G0AB=>9 A>1AB25==>AB8 ?@>8AE>48B
=5C:;>==>. B><5= =0Q<=>3> B@C40 1K; 2 0=B8G=>AB8 402=> 8 H8@>:> 8725AB5=, 0
:@C?=>5 ?@>872>4AB2> 2?;>B=CN ?>4>H;> : 2=54@5=8N <0H8=. 59AB28B5;L=>, ACI5AB2>20;
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@07>@82H85AO 3@0640=5 :065BAO 4>;6=K 1K;8 ?@54AB02;OBL A>1>N 5Q AB018;L=>5 ?@54;>65=85.
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;O =0G0;0 >B<5B8<, GB> 2AO:0O @01>B0, A2O70==0O A 7028A8<>ABLN >B 4@C3>3> ;8F0 8 A =09<>< :
4@C3>LVII, 34-35, 42, 45; Isocrates. XIV, 48). !5=5:0, F8B8@CO %@878??0: � 01 5ABL 25G=K9 =05<=8:,
2 A2>Q< A@02=5=88 :0: 1K C@02=8205B =0Q<=K9 B@C4 8 @01AB2>. (Seneca, De Beneficiic, III, 22).
�@57@5==K 70@01>B:8 2A5E ?>4Q=I8:>2, G59 ?>:C?05BAO B@C4, 0 =5 8A:CAAB2>; 254L 2 MB8E
70=OB8OE A0<0O ?;0B0 5ABL 2>7=03@0645=85 70 @01A:>5 A>AB>O=85 (Cicero. De Officiis, I, XLII, 150).
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8 B>@3>2;N AG8B05B ?@57@5==>9, GB> =5 <5H05B ?>A;54=59 ?@>F25B0BL. >MB>B2;5GLAO
>B ?>;8B8G5A:8E, N@848G5A:8E, <>@0;L=KE 8 @5;838>7=KE ?@5?OBAB289, 8 ?>?KB0BLAO =09B8
M:>=><8G5A:85 10@L5@K, AB>O2H8E ?5@54 ?@>F5AA>< 35=5@0F88 @01>G53> :;0AA0 2 0=B8G=>< <8@5.
0) 5@2>5, GB> 1@>A05BAO 2 3;070 - MB> 2>?@>A AB82 : =0Q<=>4=O, ;=5
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A =510, => A0<8 O2;ONBAO ?@>5:F859 8AB>@8G5A:8 A;>682H8EAO >1I5AB25==KE >B=>H5=89. 8@
?0@F5;;O@=KE :@5ABLO= 2@O4 ;8 1K; 3>B>2 : B0:8< ?@54AB02;5=8O<.
1) B>@>9 0A?5:B MB> ?@>1;5<0 2>5==>3> ?@87K20 3@0640=. 0@F5;;O@=K9 :@5ABLO=8=, 0D8=A:89
75238B 8;8 @84O 2 0@<8N, >AB02;O; =0 E>7O9AB25 @010. !0<> =0;8G85
A>1AB25==>3> E>7O9AB20 ?>72>;O5B ?@8A>548=8BL : =54=>3> 8;8 42CE @01>B=8:>2. > 5A;8
3@0640=8=, 1C4CG8 =0Q<=K< @01>G8<, 84QB 2 0@<8N, :B> >AB0=5BAO :>@<8BL A52) "@5B89, 8 :0: ?@54AB02;O5BAO A0<5=B. KBL @01>G8< >7=0G05B 8<5BL AB>8<>ABL
A2>59 @01>G59 A8;K. =0, 2 A2>N >G5@54L, 702O70=0 =0 AB>8<>ABL 68;LO, AB>8<>ABL 8 =0;8G85
:>< :>B>@K< @01>G89 4>18@05BAO 4> <5AB0 @01>BK, AB>8<>ABL A>45@60=8O A5B@048F8>==KE @0AE>4>2 3@0640=8=0 ?>;8A0.
# =0A 5ABL, ?> <5=LH59 <5@5, 420 B>G=KE A2845B5;LAB20 > @0AE>40E =0 0D8=A:CN A53>2>@O > ?5@8>45 409-401 BC, ?5@5G8A;O5B AB0BL8 @0AE>4>2 =0 45B59 A54>B0: ?@>2878O,
>1C2L, 38<0B88, 20;O;LI8:C (AB8@:0), F8@N;L=8:C (2:;NG0O <0A;> 8 <078), ?048B5;O<,
@0AE>4K =0 48>=8A88, @0AE>4K =0 4@C385 ?@074=8:8 8 65@B2>?@8=>H5=8O, =0 ?5403>30, =0 A;C60=:C.
0;55, >= CA;>2=> >F5=8205B A>45@60=85 >4=>9 452>G:8 8 42CE <0;LG8:>2 2 AC<@O4:0 1000
4@0E< 2 3>4 (Lysias. XXXII, 20-22; 28). $0:B8G5A:8 4K =0 M@70F-A5A51O 42CE 27@>A;KE @01>2 - ?5403>30 8 A;C60=:C, 8 B@QE 45B59.
5<>AD5= 4;O IV 25:0 BC >?@545;O5B 3>4>2>9 @0AE>4 =0 A5AB>OICN 87 =5A>25@H5==>;5B=8E
AK=0, 4>G5@8 8 8E <0B5@8 :0: 7 <8= 2 3>4, B.5. 700 4@0E< (Demosthenes. XXVII, 36).
>=5G=>, >15 A5 8>4>B0 >F5=820;>AL ?@8<5@=> 2 13 B0;0=B>2
8 30 <8= (Lysias. XXXII, 6), 0 >B5F 5<>AD5=0 >AB028; >:>;> 14 B0;0=B>2 8 50 <8= (Demosthenes.
XXVII, 4). "5< =5 <5=55, 5ABL B@8 206=KE >1AB>OB5;LAB20:
1. 5@54 =0<8 AC451=K5 ?@>F5AAK, 2>71C64Q==K5 ?>27@>A;52H8<8 45BL<8 ?@>B82 A2>8E
>?5:C=>2 :>B>@K5 ?@8A2>8;8 A515 2AQ 8E A>AB>O=85. >MB>?5:C=K @07>@O;8AL =0
=8E 2 B> 2@5340 @0AB8;8.
2. >4=>< 87 B5:AB>2 65=0 8>4>B0 1@>A05B 2 ;8F> A2>5?5:C=C A;54CNI85 A;>20: �"K
2>A?8BK205HL B5?5@L 45B59 >B <>59 <0G5E8 2 1>30BAB25 8 1;5A:5& 0 <>8E 45B59 >18605HL&
45=L38 B515 4>@>65 2A5E =0A (Lysias. XXXII, 17). !;54>20B5;L=>, 3>4>2>9 @0AE>4 ?>@O4:0
1000 4@0E< =0 A5, =5 AG8B0;AO 87;8H=5 1>30BK< 8 1;5ABOI8<.
3. 45AL =5 CG8BK20NBAO A@54AB20 =0 A>45@60=85 27@>A;>3> BFK 2
>1>8E A5<59AB20E ?>381;8 8;8 C<5@;8. <55BAO 2 284C =5 B>;L:> >A>15==>AB8 3>
>@30=87<0. > B0:65 B@048F8>==0O A>F80;L=0O @>;L < A>F8C<5,
B@51CNI0O 4>?>;=8B5;L=KE @0AE>4>2 2>>@C65=85, >1I5AB25==0O, :C;LBC@=0O 8 A?>@B82=0O
45OB5;L=>ABL, ?@>O2;5=85 3>AB5?@88AC3, ?>A5I5=85 2 (Lysias. XXIV,
19-20).
F5=:C ?@>68B>G=KE <8=82 2 D8=0E V-IV 25:>2 BC <>6=> >?@545;8BL ?> 60;>20=8N
4>;6=>AB=KE ;8F, 70=OBKE F5;K9 45=L 8 3>AC40@AB25==K< ?5=A8O<. =8 @02=O;8AL 1-3 >1>;0 2 45=L
(Lysias. XXIV, 13; Aristoteles. Atheniensium Politeia, 27, 3; 41, 3; 62, 2; Aristothanes. Ecclesiazusae, 185).
>340 A5@:A HQ; =0 D8=K, B> B@575=FK ?@8=O;8 >BF>2, 6Q=, 45B59 8 @01>2 0D8=O=, >?@545;82
A>45@60BL 8E >1I5AB25==K< 864825=85<, =07=0G82 :064> 2 >1>;0 2 45=L, 0 @0AE>4K =0
>1CG5=85 45B59 AG8B0;8AL >B45;L=> (Plutarch. Themistocles, 10).
!B0=40@B=0O ?;0B0 G;5=C M:8?060 B@85@K, 345 2 ?>402;ONI5< 1>;LH8=AB25 A;C68;8 D5BK,
A>AB02;O;0 1 4@0E 1K;8 A;CG08, :>340 M:8?060< ?;0B8;8 ?> 2 4@0E
?@>280=B =5 2E>48; 2 MBC AC<= >?;0G820;AO 3>AC40@AB2>< >B45;L=>, ?@8<5@=> ?> 2 >1>;0 2
45=L =0 G5;>25:0 (Xenophon. Historia Graeca, I, 5, 4-7; Thucydides. VI, 31, 3; III, 17, 3).
@8AB>B5;L >1>7=0G05B B0:65 8 <0:A8<0;L=>5 4=52=>5 60;>20=85 =0 2KAH8E ?>78F8OE:
G;5=K !>25B0 ?>;CG0NB ?> 5-6 >1>;>2, 0@E>=BK 8 0=K ?> 1 4@0E<5. @8 @8AB>B5;5
?>2KA8;8 ?;0BC 70 =0@>4=K5 A>1@0=8O 4> 6-9 >1>;>2 (Aristoteles. Atheniensium Politeia, 62,
2). 0 3>AC40@AB25==>< AB@>8B5;LAB25 -@5EB59>=0 (409-406 BC) 8 -;52A8=8O (329-327 BC)
:20;8D8F8@>20==K< @01>G8< ?;0B8;8 2-2,5 4@0E20==K< @07=>@01>G8<
1,5 4@0E7 MB8E ?@8<5@>2 284=>, GB> C@>25=L D878>;>38G5A:>3> 2K6820=8O A>AB02;O; 1-2 >1>;0 2 45=L, 8;8
8=B5@?>;8@>20==K9 =0 F5;K9 3>4 2 365 4=59 60-120 4@0E< 2 3>4.
8=8<0;L=K9 ?@>68B>G=K9 C@>25=L 48;AO 2 7>=5 3-4 >1>;>2 2 45=L, 8;8 180-240
4@0E< 2 3>4. MB8E ?@545;0E, >G5284=> ?@868<0OAL : =86=52=N, :>;510;>AL 8 3>4>2>5
A>45@60=85 @010.
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ABL 5IQ >48= 3@C1K9 A?>A>1 >F5=:8 A@54=53> 7=0G5=8O 4>E>40, =5>1E>48<>3> 4;O A>45@60=8O
A5=F0 V 25:0 BC A2845B5;LAB2CNB,
GB> <548<= ?H5=8FK AB>8; 6-6,5 4@0E<. ">340 4>E>4 75238BA:>9 A5< 2 200 <548<=>2,
@02=O;AO 1200 4@0E<0< 2 3>4.
;N1>< A;CG05, 27@>A;K9 G53> 4>;65= 1K; 70@010BK20BL
A>B=8 4@0E< 2 3>4 - 500, 600, 700 8 1>;55 - GB>1K A>45@60BL A5 4>AB83=CBL B0:>3> C@>2=O
70@01>B=>9 ?;0BK 1K;> 01A>;NB=> =52>7<>6=>. !>45@60=85 ?@>872>48B5;L=>3> @010 >1E>48;>AL
?@54?@8=8<0B5;N 2 =5A:>;L:> @07 45H52;5, 8 4065 @K=>G=0O F5=0 @010 2 200 4@0E< =5 83@0;0
1>;LH>9 @>;8.
A;8 ?@54?>;>68BL @02=>5 :>;8G5AB2> @01>G8E 4=59, @01>G8E G0A>2 8 ?@>872>48B5;L=>AB8 B@C40, B>
=09B8 3@0=8G=>5 7=0G5=85 2 MB>< =5@025=AB25 >G5=L ;53:>. CABL:
S @K=>G=0O F5=0 @010, 200 4@0E<.
d >4=>4=52=>5 A>45@60=85 @010, 3 >1>;0 = 0,5 4@0En G8A;> :0;5=40@=KE 4=59.
m G8A;> @01>G8E 4=59 2 ?@><56CB:5 >B =C;O 4> n; 5A;8 ?@8=OBL A>2@5<5==>5 7=0G5=85 2 260
@01>G8E 4=59 2 3>4C, B> A>>B=>H5=85 m / n = 0.7
v 70@01>B=0O ?;0B0 4;O A51>;>2 = 1,5 4@0E4 >= 70@01>B05B
2A53> 400 4@0E<, B>340
S + n x d = m x v
S + n x d = 0.7n x v
n = S / (0.7v d) = 363 4=O
87=5A, @0AAG8B0==K9 1>;55 G5< =0 3>4, =5>1E>48<> 4>;65= 1K; ?@82;5:0BL @01A:CN @01>GCN A8;C.
A;8 65 A@54=NN F5=C ?>;CB>@0 45AOB:>2 ?>:C?=KE @01>2 A=878BL 4> 180 4@0E<, 0 8E A>45@60=85 4>
2 >1>;>2 2 45=L, B>340 breakeven =0ABC?8B G5@57 250 4=59. B0:8E CA;>28OE G0AB=K9 A5:B>@ =5 1K;
A?>A>15= >15A?5G8BL ?>AB>O==CN 70@01>B=CN ?;0BC 4065 D5B0<. 8HL 2 BO6Q;>5 2>5==>5 2@5154=>ABL 2K=C6405B A2>1>4=KE 65=I8= >1@0I0BLAO :> <=>38< @01A:8< 8 =87<5==K< 70=OB8O<:
84B8 2 :>@<8;8FK, =0=8<0BLAO ?@OE0<8 8 =0 A1>@ 28=>3@040, => 2AQ MB> :@0B:>A@>G=K5 8;8
2@5<5==K5 @01>BK (Demosthenes. LVII, 35; 42 8 45). F5=:0 ?5@5=>A:8 25I59 2 D8=0E =0 C@>2=5 >B
4 4> 12 >1>;>2, B.5. 2 A@54=5< 1,3 4@0E9 F5=>9 (Aristophanes. Ranae, 173).
4=>2@5<5==>, 4=52=>9 4>E>4 10H<0G=8:0 @02=O;AO 7 >1>;0<, 8;8 1,2 4@0E;L:> 65 ?>;CG0;
<0AB5@, >1CG0O A2>5MB>70=8<0BLAO <5;:>9 0@5=4>9, <5;:8< @5<5A;>< 8 @>7=8G=>9 B>@3>2;59, 81> @01>B0O =0Q<=8:0<8,
70@01>B0BL 4>AB0B>G=> >=8 =5 A?>A>1=K (Demosthenes. LVII, 36; Isocrates. Areopagiticus, 30; 38).
;O @83> @01>2;045=8O ;8 F0@59, @01-0:BQ@
?>;CG05B ?@0:B8G5A:8 A0 5 45=0@852 (20 A5AB5@F852) 8 5 <>4852 ?H5=8FK
2 <5AOF (Seneca. Epistulae Morales., 80). &5=0 <>48O ?H5=8FK A>AB02;O;0 2-4 A5AB5@F8O, => 745AL,
2848<>, ?;0BC 2 ?@>?>@F88 50/50, B.5. 10 <>4852 ?H5=8FK 2 <5AOF 8;8 40 A5AB5@F852.
3>4 MB> A>AB02;O5B 120 <>4852 ?H5=8FK 8;8 480 A5AB5@F852, ?> 4 A5AB5@F8O 70 <>489.
0 A>45@60=85 240 :20;8D8F8@>20==KE 2>4>?@>2>4G8:>2, 8@A:8E @01>2, 2 3>4 CE>48;> 250
BKA. A5AB5@F852 (Frontinus. De Aquaeductu), GB> 40QB 25A><>5 7=0G5=85 2 1040 A5AB5@F852 2 3>4 =0
>4=>3> @010 8;8 260 <>4852 ?H5=8FK.
0=55, F5=8;8 3>4>2>5 A>45@60=85 @01>2 0B>=0. "0: 4;O ?8B0=8O >= 2K45;O5B 4,25 <>48O
?H5=8FK 2 <5AOF =0 >4=>3> G5;>25:0 (Cato. 56). >;>682 AB>;L:> 65 =0 28=>, >;82:8, A>;L 8 ?@>G85
?@>4C:BK, 8 5IQ @07 AB>;L:> 65 =0 >4564C, ?>AB5;L 8 <548F8=A:>5 >1A;C6820=85, ;CG8< 4,25 E
3 E 12 <5AOF52 = 153 <>48O ?H5=8FK 2 3>4 =0 >4=>3> @010 8;8 612 A5AB5@F852.
A:>;L:> =C6=> 1K;> 4;O 687=8 >1KG=>9 @89 A56=> ?>?@>1>20BL 2KG8A;8BL MB>B
C@>25=L 8AE>4O 87 ?;>I048 =5>1E>48<>3> 75<5;L=>3> CG0AB:0.
!>3;0A=> 03@0@=>=C "815@8O @0:E0 ?>@O4:0 50-75 BKA. D0<8;89 ?>;CG8;8 ?> 30 N35@>2 2
:28@8BA:CN A>1AB25==>ABL. "0:8< >1@07><, CG0AB>: 30 N35@>2 4>;65= 1K; ?>;=>ABLN >15A?5G8BL
687=545OB5;L=>ABL :@5?:>9 A53> 3@0640=8=0. 30 N35@>2 8 C?@O6:0 1K:>2 >BG5B;820O
3@0=8F0 :@5ABLO=A:>3> 1;03>A>AB>O=8O (Livius. XLV, 15, 1-2). B>@0O, 1>;55 2KA>:0O CA;>2=0O 3@0=8F0
MB> 50 N35@>2, =5 1>;LH5 G5< AB>;L:> ?>72>;8;8 8<5BL ?5@5A5;Q==K< :0?C0=F0< ?>A;5 2>9=K A
0=810;>< (Livius. XXVI, 34, 10).
;O ?>A520 >1KG=> 1@0;8 5 <>4852 ?H5=8FK =0 1 N35@, ?@8 MB>< =>@<0;L=0O C@>609=>ABL
>F5=820;0AL :0: 8 : 1, 8;8 10 : 1 (Varro, I, 44, 1; Cicero. In Verrem, II, 3,112). #A;>2=> ?@54?>;>68<
?>;5, ?>;=>ABLN 70A5205<>5 ?H5=8F59. ">340 CG0AB>: 2 30 N35@>2 =5>1E>48<> 1K;> 70A5OBL
150 <>48O<8 A>>B25BAB25==>, 8 ?@8 A1>@5 C@>60O A=OBL 1200 <>4852. 065 70 2KG5B>< 75@Q= =0
A;54CNI89 ?>A52, 2AQ @02=> A51E>48<> 2 4-6 @07 1>;LH5 A@54AB2, G5< @01C. ;020 A51C4CG8 @01>G8<, =5 A<>3 1K =8:>340 ?>;CG8BL B0:>9 C@>25=L 70@01>B=>9 ?;0BK.
N10O ?>B5@O A@54=53> 4>E>40 8 A=865=85 1;03>A>AB>O=8O 3@0640=8=0 25;0 : >68405<>9
AB0=40@B=>9 @50:F88. �8H82H8AL >BF>2A:8E 8 454>2A:8E :;5@>2, 8 2K=C645==K5 AB0BL
10B@0:0<8 2 GC68E 8<5=8OE >=8 =5 E>B5;8 8<5BL 45B59& (Dionysius Halicarnassensis. IX, 51,
7). �!> A2>59 AB>@>=K, 154=K5 60;>20;8AL =0 B>, GB> 87 ;N459, >1;040NI8E 4>AB0B:><, >=8
>1@0B8;8AL 2 :@09=8E 154=O:>2, GB> 2A;54AB285 MB>3> 6Q=K 8E 15A?;>4=K. 'B> >=8 =5 A<>3CB
:>@<8BL A2>8E 45B59, GB> 8E ?>;>65=85 AB0;> =52K=>A8=20;84 C 8A8O, 8<5NI89 4>E>4 <5=55 300 4@0E< 2 3>4, ?>;CG05B >B 3>AC40@AB20 ?5=A8N 2 >48=
>1>; 2 45=L. # =53> 5ABL :0:>5-B> <5;:>5 @5<5A;>, => >= =5 A?>A>15= =8 :C?8BL A515 @010, =8
8<5BL 65=C 8 45B59 (Lysias. XXIV, 6 8 26). >4>1=K< >1@07>< 154=O: D:A8D59 70=8<05BAO <5;:>9
B>@3>2;59 - ?@>405B ;5=BK 8 B5< A01K205B A@54AB20 : 687=8 A2>8< B@C4>< (Demosthenes.
LVII, 31). 065 5A;8 2:A8D59 5I5 ?>;CG0; 2 <8@=>5 2@51>;0 2 45=L 7@5;8I=KE 45=53 87
:0AAK D5>@8:8>=0 =0 B50B@0;L=K5 7@5;8I0 (Demosthenes. LIX, 4), B> 2AQ @02=> >= A>25@H5==>
>48=, C =53> =5B =8 CG0AB:0 75<;8, =8 A>1AB25==>3> 4><0, =8 65=K, =8 45B59. > =8 B>B, =8 4@C3>9 =5
<>3CB AB0BL =0Q<=K<8 @01>G8<8, 2 284C >BACBAB28O 4>AB0B>G=KE 70@01>B=KE ?;0B.
4) '5B2Q@BK9 0A?5:B ?@>1;53> B@C40 2 0=B8G=>AB8. 0Q<=K9 B@C4
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8B5@0BC@0:
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(B05@<0= . ., "@>D8<>20 . . 01>2;045;LG5A:85 >B=>H5=8O 2 @0==59 @89 8(B0;8O). - .: 0C:0, 1971.
>A<8=A:89 . . AA;54>20=85 ?> 03@0@=>9 8AB>@88 =3;88 XIII 25:0. - .: .: :04. 0C: !!! ,
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02@>2A:89 . ., AA;54>20=85 ?> 03@0@=>9 8AB>@88 =3;88 XVII-XIX 25:>2. .: 0C:0, 1966.
C78I8= . . 5=578A @01>2;045;LG5A:8E ;0B8DC=489 2 B0;88 (II 2. 4> =.M. I 25: =.M). M., 74-2>
>A:. #=-B0, 1976, A. 267)
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