PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS IN THE GREATER yellowstone ecosystem
PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS IN THE GREATER YELLOWSTONE ECOSYSTEM Christopher L. Hill Department of Anthropology and Environmental Studies Program, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho; Chill2@boisestate.edu and, more rarely, carnivores such as scimitar Introduction cat, cheetah, and dire wolf. The Greater Yel- lowstone Ecosystem consists of parts of south- The Pleistocene, which generally corresponds western Montana, northwestern Wyoming, and to the Ice Age, is characterized by fluctuating southeastern Idaho (fig. 1). The drainages of climates that started around 3-2 million years streams that are part of the Upper Missouri ago and ended about 10,000 years ago, after a River basin (such as Red Rock River, Beaver- short, cold interval called the Younger Dryas. head River, Jefferson River, Ruby River, and The Pleistocene is especially important in the Madison River) are part of this landscape in application of ecological principles because it southwestern Montana (fig. 2). The broad char- is associated with the evolution and extinction acter of the Rancholabrean communities in this of a variety of mammals (Barnosky et al. 2004; region is known from isolated discoveries in Barnosky, 2005). In North America, the last fluvial gravels and sands (chiefly of mam- part of the Pleistocene coincides with climate moth), fossils collected from caves, and more change, glacial advance and retreat, and the detailed studies of late Pleistocene stratigraphic Rancholabrean land mammal age. The end of sequences. Besides fossil vertebrates, some the Pleistocene also coincides with the earliest localities contain evidence, based on the pres- presence of humans in North America. ence of artifacts, for prehistoric human groups in the region by 11,000-10,500 radiocarbon Southwestern Montana, which includes the (14C) years ago. northwest part of the Greater Yellowstone Eco- system and adjacent areas, contains evidence The landscape of southwestern Montana is to a for extinct Pleistocene mammals. These include great degree the product of tectonic events and herbivores such as mammoth, camel, and horse, climatic change during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene (roughly the last 3 million years). Tectonic processes in the form of regional faulting have led to the formation of the basin- and-range physiographic character of the re- gion. Volcanism centered on the area of the Yellowstone Plateau over about the last 2 mil- lion years is connected to regional tectonic events extending over the last 15 million years or so on the Snake River Plain. Volcanism in the Pacific Range resulted in the deposition of several tephra (volcanic ash) deposits which serve as useful regional stratigraphic markers. Climatic fluctuations have also played an im- portant role, both in forming the present-day landscape and influencing the Pleistocene pa- leobiotic communities of the region. Late Plio- Figure 1. Location of Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin Rivers in southwestern Montana in relation to Yellow- cene or early Pleistocene through Holocene stone National Park. glacial episodes have been documented. Most Northwest Geology, v. 36, 2007 p. 151-166 151 The Journal of the Tobacco Root Geological Society clude Mammuthus (cf. M. columbi), Homotherium serum (scimitar cat), canids (wolf and coyote), Equus (horse), Bison (bison), and Camelops (camel). Else- where in the Jefferson drain- age, in the vicinity of Black- tail Deer Creek, Equus, Camelops, Bison, Ovis (sheep), and Canis dirus (dire wolf) have been recov- ered from Sheep Canyon- Orr Cave, while Mammut- hus and Equus fossils have been recovered within the Ruby River drainage, and Acinonyx trumani (cheetah), Equus, Camelops and Ovis canadensis (mountain sheep) are known from the Sheep Rock Spring locality west of the Boulder River. Plio-Pleistocene Geologic Background Climate change and tectonic activity during the late Plio- cene and Pleistocene have affected the physical and Figure 2. Location of major Pleistocene localities in south- western Montana. biotic environments of the region. A series of volcanic explosions occurred in the area cen- of the mountain ranges contain evidence for tered on Yellowstone National Park. The three multiple glaciations during the late Cenozoic, major explosions date to about 2.0, 1.3 and 0.6 while alluvial fans and terraces within the val- million years ago (cf. Hamilton, 1965; Walsh, leys reflect the interplay between fluctuating 1971; Christiansen and Blank, 1972; Witkind, climatic regimes and tectonic processes. 1976; Weinheimer, 1979; Mannick, 1980; Christiansen, 1982; Sonderegger et al., 1982; Although Pleistocene fossils have been col- Pritchett, 1993; Gansecki et al., 1998; O Neill lected from the area for over a hundred years, and Christiansen, 2004). These events resulted extensively studied stratigraphic sequences in the emplacement of igneous rocks. The prod- containing Pleistocene vertebrate remains are ucts of this local volcanic activity and volcanic relatively uncommon in southwestern Montana. ash beds originating from the Cascade region Early collections include Mammuthus serve as useful local stratigraphic markers. For (mammoth) fossils found in the drainage of the example, the late Pleistocene Glacier Peak ash 14 Ruby River obtained as part of the Hayden Sur- dated to about 11,200 C years B.P. and the vey in 1871. A significant Pleistocene locality early-middle Holocene tephras Mount Mazama is in Centennial Valley, east of Lima, Montana, ash dated to about 6,900 14C years B.P. are visi- along the Red Rock River. Mammal fossils in- ble in road cuts or natural exposures, and have 152 also been documented in stratigraphic cores. provided a variety of contexts that can be re- Both the Glacier Peak and Mazama volcanic lated to paleobiotic patterns in southwestern ashes are present in a stratigraphic core col- Montana. Pleistocene mammal fossils have lected from Kearns Basin, within the Beaver- been recovered in the vicinity of the Red Rock head drainage in the southern Pioneer Moun- River (the Merrell Locality), Blacktail Creek tains (Foit et al., 1993). The Glacier Peak and (Sheep Canyon Cave), South Everson Creek, Mazama tephras are exposed along the Jeffer- Alder Gulch, Dry Boulder Creek, Sheep Rock son, Madison, and Gallatin Valleys (cf. Mon- Spring, and Point-of-Rocks Cave (fig. 2). These tagne, 1965:51; Kellogg, 1992) and have also localities contain a record of biodiversity that been documented in the Yellowstone Plateau can be related to changes in physical land- area (cf. Whitlock, 1993), and elsewhere in the scapes and biotic habitats associated with re- upper Missouri basin (Lemke et al., 1975; gional Quaternary tectonic and climate events. Davis and Greiser, 1992). The most extensively studied Pleistocene pale- The mountains within southwestern Montana ontological locality in the Greater Yellowstone supported glaciers at various times during the Ecosytem is near Red Rock River, a major Pleistocene (Alden, 1953; Hall and McMannis, stream in the southern area of the Jefferson 1960; Paul and Lyons, 1960; Hall, 1961; Sloan, River drainage (fig. 3). The locality is east of 1960; Montagne, 1960; Reshkin, 1963; Rich- Lima, which is about 45 miles south of Dillon. mond, 1965; Hadley, 1969; Jacobs, 1969; Mon- Red Rock River flows from east to west tagne, 1972; Pierce, 1979; Gary, 1980; Roy and through the Centennial Valley, surrounded to Hall, 1981; Hall and Heiny, 1983; Richmond, the north by the Snowcrest and Gravelly 1986a, 1986b; Locke, 1989; Hall, 1990; Locke Ranges and to the south by the Centennial 1990; Schneider, 1990a, 1990b; Locke and Mountains. Four classes of animals have been Schneider, 1990; Lundstrom, 1990; Pritchett, recovered: Osteichthyes (bony fish), Aves 1990; Ritter et al., 1990; Pritchett, 1993; Ritter (waterfowl), Amphibia (amphibians), and et al., 1993; Sturchio et al., 1994; Bartholomew Mammalia (Dundas 1990, 1992; Dundas et al., et al., 1999). Moraines within many of the 1996; Hill, 1999; Hill and Davis, 2005; Hill tributary valleys show the extent of past glaci- 2006a, 2006b). Table 1 provides a list of the ations. Alluvial fans and terraces on the flanks mammals recovered from Centennial Valley, of the mountains and in the valleys are com- while table 2 is a list of radiocarbon dates. Fi- posed of sediments of glaciofluvial origin, de- nite radiocarbon ages range from about 49,350 14 posited as outwash from glacial meltwater. Late C years B.P. (Beta-116519) to about 19,310 14 Cenozoic lacustrine, paludal, and spring (e.g. C years B.P. (Beta-77826). Several measure- tufas) sediments are present in the valleys, as ments indicate some remains are older than 14 are aeolian silts (loess) and sands. Vertebrate 52,800 C years B.P. The faunal assemblages remains have been recovered from some of are from several sedimentary units and appear these depositional contexts and have also been to have been affected by a variety of ta- found in caves and rock shelters. Stratigraphic phonomic processes reflecting the dynamics of and geomorphic relationships of these various pre-burial deposition, burial, and post-burial deposits can be linked to both paleoclimatic events. chronologies and tectonic events. This geochro- nologic-paleoenvironmental framework serves Stratigraphic contexts and sedimentologic fa- as a basis for evaluating the late Pliocene and cies associated with the Centennial Valley Pleistocene paleobiotic communities of the re- mammal fossils reflect a variety of depositional gion. and post-depositional processes. These contexts provide information on the factors leading to the accumulation of the fossils. Five strata have Pleistocene Mammal Localities been designated (figs. 4-7). The oldest set of deposits is stratum A which contains alluvial, The climate and physical environmental lacustrine, and possibly colluvial sediments. changes that occurred during the Quaternary 153 Table 1. Mammal species from Centennial Valley, southwestern Montana. TAXON STRATUM Carnivora Canis latrans (coyote) Stratum C Canis lupus (gray or timber wolf) Unknown context Ursus sp. indet. (bear) Unknown context Homotherium serum (scimitar-tooth cat) Unknown context (beach) Rodentia Spermophilus sp. indet. (squirrel) Unknown context Castor canadensis (Canadian beaver) Unknown context Lemmiscus curtatus (sagebrush vole) Stratum C Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) Strata A-B or B Perissodactyla Equus sp. indet. (horse) Stratum C, D Artiodactyla Camelops sp. indet. Strata C, D Cervidea sp. indet. (deer) Stratum C Odocoileus hemionus or O. virginianus Unknown context (mule deer or white-tailed deer) Antilocapridea americana (pronghorn) Unknown context Bison sp. indet.(bison) Stratum D Proboscidea Mammuthus columbi (Columbian mammoth) Strata A, A-B or B, C, D 154 TABLE 2: Radiocarbon Measurements from Centennial Valley Age Lab Number Material/Method Location Other ES-26-7 South Area: Either >52,800 SR-6012 Mammuthus tooth, (Excavation E South ˝, Stratum A or B Chem-6817 XAD-gelatin, KOH- Level 26) collagen ES-27-1 South Area: Stratum >52,800 SR-6013 Mammuthus tooth, (Excavation E South ˝, B Chem 6821 XAD-gelatin, HOH- Level 27) collagen >52,800 SR-6016 Equus upper mo- Ib#12, 95.2.155 North Area: Stratum D Chem-6833 lar, XAD-gelatin, KOH-collagen Ib#21 North Area: >52,800 SR-6017 Mammuthus tusk, Stratum D XAD-gelatin, KOH- collagen CS-21-1 North Area: 49,350 +/- Beta-116519 Mammuthus molar LI94.5.277 Stratum A 1,500 fragments 154, MS686 -19.2 C13/C12 Not in stratigraphic context -11.1 C13/C12 43,970 +/- Beta-110647 Cygnus-Olar, bone 370 collagen East of Test Pit E, from South Area: >41,940 Beta-83614 Humates (HCl/ backhoe trench, South Stratum B NaOH/HCl) Block -28.2 C13/C12 Excavation E South Area: 36,520 +/- Beta-74032 Organic sediments Stratum B 710 from Mammuthus -26.0 C13/C12 rib Dundas specimen 10027 South Area: >33,990 Beta-36206 Mammuthus fibula, Stratum B bone collagen 97FS36 South Area: 32,470 +/- Beta 111325 Mamuthus (tusk, LI96.4.44 Stratum B 270 bone collagen, L3FS36 -25.2 C13/C12 KOH) p. 137 Station E4 North Area: Stratum 30,400 +/- SR-6018 Camelops, Hill specimen C 590 Chem-6839 XAD-gelatin, KOH-collagen Ia#4 North Area: 26,630 +/- SR-6015 Equus, XAD- Stratum D 190 Chem-6826 decalcified colla- gen 25,030 +/- Beta-36205 Mammuthus, meta- Channel fill re. Dundas North Area: specimen 10006 = debris Stratum D 510 tarsal, bone colla- flow gen K#29 South Area: 23,120 +/- SR-6014 Mammuthus tusk Excavation K Stratum B 1190 XAD-gelatin, KOH- collagen ML-98-CLH97-C, Stratum D, North Area: 21,530 +/- Beta-118755 Bone collagen, fragment of bone in matrix Stratum D 100 KOH above TL3 sand sample -20.9 C13/C12 Debris flow = Stratum D -23.7 19,290 +/- Beta-77826 Collagen, KOH 90 155 Figure 3. Location of Merrell Site in Centennial Valley. Stratum B consists of dark, organic-rich sedi- higher frequencies of mammal fossils is along ments deposited in a swamp or bog. Silts, the interface of strata A-B and in the lowest sands, and gravels from stratum C mostly rep- part of stratum B (fig. 5). There are no articu- resent alluvial deposition. Stratum D is chiefly lated specimens, but there are concentrations of composed of a debris flow. It overlies a sandy bones, tusk and teeth of mammoth (fig. 6). facies of stratum A. After strata A-D were de- Other faunal materials from this taphonomic posited, they were affected by soft-sediment context include Ondatra zibethecus (muskrat) deformation-liquefaction, and faulting, perhaps and bivalves. These may include bones that linked to local tectonic events. The youngest accumulated on the surface of stratum A and depositional unit, designated stratum E, con- then were buried within stratum B, as well as sists of colluvium. There is evidence of exten- elements that accumulated during the deposi- sive bioturbation (biologic mixing) in stratum E tion of the stratum B organic-rich sediments. and in parts of stratum C. Radiocarbon measurements, if reliable, suggest that this taphonomic context contains a tempo- Vertebrate remains found within stratum A are rally mixed fossil assemblage. Fragments of 14 usually rare and isolated, except near its upper mammoth teeth were dated at >52,800 C contact with stratum B (fig. 4). One example of years B.P. (SR-6012, SR-6013), while radiocar- 14 an isolated find within stratum A is a patella of bon ages on tusk fragments are 32,470 C a proboscidean (probably from Mammuthus). It years B.P. (Beta-111325) and 23,120 14C years is likely that some of the fossils found within B.P. (SR-6014). These could reflect a ta- stratum A, especially near its upper contact phonomic or formational context associated with stratum B, have been moved by post- with surface exposure within a small basin, and depositional events. burial in or incorporation into a marsh. The first taphonomic context in which there are The alluvial deposits of stratum C also contain 156 Figure 4. Stratigraphic profile in Centennial Valley showing Pleistocene strata A-C and Holocene colluvium. Figure 5 (above). Stratigraphy at Centennial Valley verte- brate locality. Dark layer is stratum B. It over lies stratum A and underlies stratum C. Figure 6 (left). Mammoth tooth in stratigraphic context. 157 vertebrate remains. These include including The depositional variability reflected in the limb bone, tooth, and tusk fragments of mam- stratigraphic record indicates that the Centen- moth, and fragments from Camelops (camel), nial Valley vertebrate assemblages are the re- Equus (horse), Canis latrans (coyote), a large sult of at least three different taphonomic con- artiodactyl, Lemmiscus curtatus (sagebrush texts. The dispersal, scattering, and accumula- vole), Pices (fish), and Anatidae (duck). The tion of bones associated with the strata A-B 14 radiocarbon age on camel is about 30,400 C appears to have occurred in a marsh-pond ba- sin. Transport, deposition and burial of skeletal parts recov- ered within stratum C was the result of hydraulic events asso- ciated with fluvial conditions. The concentration of mam- moth fossils in stratum D oc- curs within a debris flow. Sub- surface movements post- depositional crushing by sedi- ment overburden along with liquefaction and faulting have also affected the charac- ter of the fossil record. Horse remains are associated with both fluvial and debris flow deposits. Camel and wolf re- Figure 7. Debris flow (stratum D) with mammal fossils in Centennial Valley. years B.P. (SR-6018). These fossils are distrib- uted throughout the sequence of stratum C, within fluvial gravels and sands interbedded with silts. Thus, these vertebrate remains repre- sent a taphonomic context primarily associated with stream transport and burial. A third sedimentological setting is associated with the fossils from stratum D, consisting of a fine-grained matrix with limestone and quartz- ite cobbles and bones, interpreted as a debris flow (fig. 7). Most of the faunal material con- sists of remains of mammoth (tusk, teeth, and bones, fig. 8) as well as some elements of Equus (horse) and Bison (bison). Based on the radiocarbon ages, this assemblage is temporally mixed. Fragments of mammoth and horse bone have measurements indicating ages of >52,800 (SR-6016, SR-6017) and finite ages of 26,630 14 C years B.P. (SR-6015) and 19,310 14C years B.P. (Beta-77826). Thus, the youngest fossils from Centennial Valley appear to date to Figure 8. Mammoth tooth within stratum D, Centennial Valley. around the Last Glacial Maximum. 158 mains have been identified from alluvial con- texts, while bison were recovered only in asso- Pleistocene vertebrate remains have been re- ciation with the debris flow. All three sedimen- covered east of Dillon from the Alder Creek tologic contexts contain evidence of mammoth. area, within the Ruby River drainage (fig. 2). The Ruby River flows northeastward into the Two terraces are present along the Red Rock Beaverhead-Jefferson Valley. It is bounded to River Valley southeast of Lima (Scholten et al., the south by the Ruby Range and to the north 1965); they have been interpreted as being con- by the Tobacco Root Mountains. F.V. Hayden nected with Pleistocene mountain glaciation. obtained Pleistocene fossils from the vicinity of Red Rock River flows northwest, between the Virginia City, at Alder Gulch (Hayden, 1872; Tendoy Mountains to the southwest and the Merrill, 1999). The remains were assigned to Blacktail Mountains to the northeast and Elephas (= Mammuthus) primigenius by Hay- merges with Horse Prairie Creek to form the den (1872). Later some of the proboscidean Beaverhead River at the Clark Canyon Reser- remains were identified as E. columbi (Hay, voir, about 11 miles south of Dillon (fig. 2). 1924). Other mammoth fossils from Alder Blacktail Deer Creek flows into the Beaverhead Gulch were recovered during placer mining River from the east and is bounded by the prior to 1894 and are in the collection of the Blacktail Mountains to the southwest, the Virginia City Museum and Library. Along the Snowcrest Range in the southeast and the Ruby northern flanks of the Ruby Range, fossils of Range to the north. Along the south side of Pleistocene horse have been collected from Blacktail Deer Creek valley, south of Dillon, gravels at the mouth of Dry Boulder Creek, and Pleistocene vertebrate remains were recovered from silts near Dry Georgia Creek (Petkewich, from Sheep Canyon Cave. The locality was 1972). excavated by P. Orr between 1925 and 1930 (Campbell, 1978). Faunal remains include A late Pleistocene vertebrate assemblage was Equus, Camelops, Bison and Ovis. The remains collected west of the Boulder River on the of Canis dirus (dire wolf) have been identified flanks of the southern end of Bull Mountain, at from Orr Cave (Kurten, 1984), which is proba- the Sheep Rock Spring locality (Wilson and bly another designation for Sheep Canyon Davis, 1994; Davis, 1997). The (Northern) Cave. Boulder River flows southward from the Elk- horn Mountains and joins the Jefferson River Southwest of Dillon, studies in the Horse Prai- near Whitehall and Cardwell, about 55 miles rie Creek and Grasshopper Creek Basins and northwest of Dillon (fig. 2). At least three ter- along the adjacent slopes of the Beaverhead races can be recognized in the Boulder River Mountains indicate at least six pre-Bull Lake Valley north of Cardwell. These were assigned age glacial advances (Turner et al., 1988). Six- to the early to middle and late Pleistocene teen terraces are recognized near South Everson ( second and third sets ) by Alden (1953:80). Creek (fig. 2), which flows from the foothills of Five stepped pediments levels were studied by the Beaverhead Mountains into Horse Prairie Morgan and Hall (1982). Faunal remains in- Creek (Bonnichsen et al., 1987, 1992). The clude cheetah (Miracinonyx trumani), horse lowest terrace contains what is probably Gla- (Equus sp.), camel (Camelops sp.), and large 14 cier Peak volcanic ash (ca. 11,200 C years mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis catclawen- B.P.) as well as flaked mammoth bone sis). The lowest part of the sequence has radio- 14 (Bonnichsen et al., 1987). Possible fragments carbon dates slightly older than 10,000 C of mammoth bone were associated with sedi- years B.P. (Hill, 2006a). ments consisting of cobbles and boulders em- bedded in clays (Bonnichsen et al., 1990; Bon- Point-of-Rocks Cave (Davis and Johnson, nichsen et al., 1992). The clays may be late 1988) is situated on the slopes of the Tobacco Pleistocene paludal or lacustrine deposits Root Mountains adjacent to the Jefferson River, (Turner et al., 1987; Turner et al., 1988). south of Whitehall and east of Renova. Fossils 159 recovered from the cave include a possible ered in the region. These range in age from 14 Bl ancan age Megant eron s p. about 10,500-10,000 C years B.P. for Agate 14 (Machairodontinae) (personal comm. to D. Basin (fig. 10) as well as 10,200-8,800 C Rasmussen from L.D. Martin, 1999) and Equus years B.P. for Alberta, Scottsbluff and Eden (Davis, 1997). artifact forms (fig. 11) (Holliday, 2000). These discoveries suggest that humans were present in this region of North America during the Evidence for Late Pleistocene Humans Younger Dryas (from about 10,900 to 10,200 14 C years B.P.) or slightly earlier and appear to The earliest well-documented evidence for hu- have persisted throughout the Pleistocene- mans in North America come from discoveries Holocene transition. associated with Clovis and Folsom artifacts. These types of artifacts are considered to be time indicators for the end of the Pleistocene Ecological Interpretations and have been discovered with extinct Ran- and Conclusions cholabrean mammals. Clovis artifacts have been found in stratigraphic contexts with mam- Large and small mammals in the Greater Yel- moths, while Folsom artifacts are associated lowstone Ecosystem include both carnivores and herbivores (Bailey, 1930; Hadly, 1986; Streubel, 1989; National Research Council, 2002; Cannon and Cannon, 2004). Carnivores present to- day include Ursos arctos (grizzly bear), Ursus ameri- canus (black bear), Felis con- color (mountain lion), Canis latrans (coyote), and Canis lupus (wolf). Herbivores in- clude Cervus elaphus (elk or wapiti), Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer), Bison bison (bison), Alces alces (moose), Figure 9. Fragment of Folsom point found north of Red Rock River, Centen- Ovis Canadensis (bighorn nial Valley (from Hill and Davis, 2005). sheep), Antilocapra americana with extinct forms of bison. In eastern Idaho, Folsom artifacts have also been found with mammoth fossils (Miller and Dort, 1978). Clovis artifacts may date to about 11,100- 14 10,800 C years B.P. (Waters and Stafford, 2007), while Folsom artifacts may range from 14 about 10,900-10,100 C years B.P. (Holliday 2000). A stratified sequence at Indian Creek on the flank of the Elkhorn Mountains in western Montana contains a Clovis component (Davis and Greiser, 1992; Hill and Davis, 2005). Fol- som artifacts have also been found regionally. One example was found north of Lima Reser- voir in Centennial Valley (fig. 9). Slightly younger artifact forms dating to about the Pleis- Figure 10. Agate Basin points from Centennial Valley tocene-Holocene transition have been discov- (from Hill and Davis, 2005). 160 (pronghorn), and Odocoileus virginianus cene. Herbivores show a pattern similar to the (white-tailed deer). Some of the smaller mam- carnivores. Some, like Mammuthus mals include Erethizon dorsatum (porcupine), (mammoth), Equus (horse), and Camelops Lepus americanus (snowshoe hare), Castor (camel) did not survive the end of the Pleisto- canadensis (beaver), Ondatra zibethicus cene, while other animals such as Odocoileus (muskrat), Gulo gulo (wolverine), Mustela (mule or white-tailed deer), Ovis canadensis (weasel), Mustela vison (mink), Martes Ameri- (bighorn/mountain sheep) and Antilocapridea can (pine marten), Martes martes (fisher), americana (pronghorn), and Bison (bison) per- Taxidea taxus (badger), Lutra canadensis (river sisted regionally. In contrast to the larger otter), Ochotona princes (pika), Marmota mammals, rodents appear to have persisted flaviventrus (yellow-bellied marmot), Tamias without major extinctions during the last glacial minimus (least chipmunk), Spermophilus ar- to interglacial transition, although some range matus (ground squirrel). changes may have occurred. This is illustrated by the Merrell Locality in Centennial Valley The Pleistocene mammals for southwest Mon- where Castor canadensis (Canadian beaver), tana fall into the two categories: those that are Lemmiscus curtatus (sagebrush vole), and On- extinct and those that are still present. This datra zibethicus (muskrat) are found in late seems to suggest some ecological relationships Pleistocene sediments. In terms of patterns of that exist today may have persisted in the re- extinctions, there appears to be a dichotomy between some large mammals, regardless of whether they are herbivores or carnivores, and small mammals. The extinction of large mam- mals near the end of the Pleistocene has been linked to both climate change and interactions with humans (Barnosky et al., 2004). References Cited Alden, W.C., 1953, Physiology and glacial geology of western Montana and adjacent areas: United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 231. Bailey, V., 1930, Animal life of Yellowstone Na- tional Park: Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Tho- mas. Figure 11. Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene points (Alberta, Scottsbluff, and Eden) from Centennial Valley Barnosky, A.D., 2005, Effects of Quaternary cli- (Hill and Davis, 2005). matic change on speciation in Mammals: Journal of Mammalian Evolution, v.12, p. 247-264. gion since the Pleistocene. It also implies that Barnosky, A.D., Koch, P.L., Feranec, R.S., Wing, some aspects of the Greater Yellowstone Eco- S.L., Shabel, A.B., 2004, Assessing the causes of system in southwestern Montana have changed Late Pleistocene extinctions on the continents: Sci- since the Pleistocene. This pattern is illustrated ence, v. 306, p. 70-75. by the carnivores. 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This serpent is the same before discribed with oval spots of yellowish brown. The river below the mountains is rapid rocky, very crooked, much divided by islands and withal shallow. After it enters the moun- tains its bends are not so circuetous and it's general course more direct, but it is equally shallow les divided more rocky and rapid. Capt. Lewis, August 10, 1805 166