Solvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy Present and Future
TSINGHUA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ISSN 1007-0214 01/18 April 7-152 pp13 Volume 11, Number 2, 2006 Solvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy: Present and Future Gordon M. Ritcey** G. M. Ritcey and Associates Inc., Ottawa, Canada Abstract: During the past 10 years, there have been incremental advances in the application of solvent ex- traction to process hydrometallurgy. The most cited areas in the literature include chemistry, chemical engi- neering, pilot plants, and plant operation. Within these areas, there were considerable interest in synergism, diluents, degradation, contactors, surfactants, hydrometallurgical applications, environmental and secondary applications, and health and safety. The summary to the present is followed by a prediction for the future in the above areas of interest. These include the use of speciation; improved understanding of the role of sur- factants on the system; optimization through modelling, pilot plants, and contactor selection; improvements in plant operation; further new applications; and plant safety. The review has indicated that considerable knowledge is now available to optimize and improve on process design and plant applications. Key words: chemical engineering; coalescence; degradation; diluents; dispersion; droplet size; electrostatic pseudoliquid membrane; environmental and secondary recovery; hydrometallurgical applications Throughout the succeeding years, considerable Introduction research on the chemistry and engineering of the solvent extraction process was achieved. Many Solvent extraction as applied to refining operations, reagents have been developed, and mechanisms for particularly uranium, commenced in the late 1940s. metals extraction proposed and numerous contactors These plants were small by present plant sizes. Shortly have been developed and researched for the mass after, and almost 50 years ago now, the first solvent transfer reaction to take place. There has also been an extraction plant was installed to treat hydrometallurgi- improvement in design through the years as new cal solutions at the mine site for the recovery of ura- design and operating knowledge was attained, together nium. The success in this first generation of uranium with improved materials of construction and sensing operations in the 1950s and 1960s eventually led to the and control devices. Thus, although there has been application of solvent extraction to copper operations considerable research performed on all aspects of SX in 1969, almost 15 years after the initial uranium sol- from hydrometallurgical solutions, nevertheless limited vent extraction (SX) plant. These plants were also very knowledge appears to have been applied to actual successful, and continue to be in the generations since. design and operating systems, resulting in only Following copper, there have been hundreds of SX incremental improvements in the overall SX process. plants installed for the recovery of many metals. With This paper will briefly outline the present status and only a couple of exceptions, all plants were mixer set- continue on to where we should be in the future in SX tler in design. as applied to hydrometallurgy. Received: 2005-10-09 E-mail: gmritcey@attglobal.net aþ aþ 138 Tsinghua Science and Technology, April 2006, 11(2): 137-152 1.2 Chemistry 1 Present Situation The common commercial extractants, comprised of At the present, in this early part of 2005, we have at- cation, chelating, anion, and solvating continue to be tained considerable knowledge on all aspects of metals used extensively. Some of the research activities in- extraction and recovery. Extremely large plants are op- volve the design of new compounds[1] and the evalua- erating, as well as many small plants processing most tion for application to possible systems. So there is of the metals of the Periodic Table of Elements. So much scientific information, but still a way to com- where are we really now as regards the science and mercialization of those new possible extractants. One new commercial COGNIS extractant (LIX 79) is a technology of SX as applied to hydrometallurgy? guanidine derivative for the extraction of Au from Selected literature during the past several years has cyanide liquors[2]. There was one mention of the design been briefly surveyed to determine the present situa- of a new extractant to extract both the anion and cation tion of solvent extraction in hydrometallurgy. The ref- as metal sulphates so this would eliminate the close pH erenced material included the Proceedings of the Inter- control required in many cation exchange systems[3]. national Solvent Extraction Conferences (ISEC 96, There were a few papers on the use of resin- ISEC 99, ISEC 02), the Proceedings of 3-SX Work- impregnated extraction systems. shops that were held in Canada in 1997, 2000, and Many studies have been reported including the fol- 2003 sponsored by the International Committee for lowing: chelate formation mechanisms, ion association Solvent Extraction; the past 5 years of the journal of effects in mass transfer, kinetics and mass transfer Hydrometallurgy and also the recent edition of the formation of third phases[4], the application of electric Handbook of Solvent Extraction, plus Proceedings of fields and the effect on mass transfer due to the inter- Aus. IMM and ALTA conferences held in Australia, facial tension and droplets size[5,6], and electrochemical Proceedings of Copper 95, Proceedings of Chloride processes to affect redox and enhance metals separa- Metallurgy Symposium (Montreal 2002), the Proceed- tion (galvanic stripping)[7] in which a less noble metal ings of the South African Inst. of Mining & Metal- is used to affect a reduction precipitation or cementa- lurgy Copper, Cobalt, Nickel, and Zinc Recovery tion of the more noble metal directly from the organic Conference (2001), and the Proceedings of VI South- to leave a purified organic for recovery of the desired ern Hemisphere Meeting on Mineral Technology, metal. Interesting studies on purification of nickel- Riode Janeiro (2001). It is recognized that this has not cobalt leach solutions using electrostatic pseudoliquid been an exhaustive search of the literature, but hope- membrane (ESPLIM) have been published[8-11]. fully a reasonable cross section. Each of the major ar- Investigations were reported on the use of SX cou- eas of solvent extraction of metals is discussed below. pled with stripping-crystallization to produce compos- 1.1 Applications ite powders[12-14]. Most of the elements in the Periodic Table now can be 1.3 Synergism recovered by solvent extraction. Thus, during 1995- 1.3.1 Reagents of the synergistic systems 2005, the metals most cited in connection with Synergism was a major topic of interest during the past separations were: alkaline metals (Rb, Cs); alkali 10 years, and many reagent combinations have been earths (Be, Mg, Ca); transition metals (Sc, Ti, V, Cr, proposed for enhancement of mass transfer as well as Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg); rare metals (Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Mo, W, Tc, Re, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Si, Ge, Sn, As, the kinetics. Some of the synergistic systems include Bi, Se, Te); precious metals (Au, Ag, Ru, Ir, Pt, Pd, the following: Rh); actinides (U, Th); lanthanides. Although sulphate 1) Alkaline earths media was still the most common, nevertheless there TTA + TOPO for Sr from alkaline earths[15]; were a surprising number of chloride-based systems. Organophosphorus and bifunctional phospho- 139 Gordon M. RitceyÿSolvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy: Present and Future nates for Ca[16] view in separation and recovery of cobalt and nickel 2) Aluminum from laterites, there were numerous publications. Proc- DNNSA + EHPA from nitrate for Al and esses were developed to separate and recover cobalt Fe[17] and nickel from sulphate, alkaline, and from chloride 3) Cadmium media. Pilot plants were described and plants designed DEHPA + MEHPA with TBP for separation of for mixer settlers as well as pulse columns. A good re- Cd-Zn[18] view was published on the developments in SX and the 4) Cobalt-nickel plants commissioned for Co and Ni[32]. LIX 63 + Cyanex 272[19]; The aspect of recovery of acids from effluents[33] Separation of Ni/Co from nitrate with a car- was of increased importance and the number of papers boxylic acid (4-tert-butylbenzoic acid) + pyri- reflected this concern to decrease processing costs dine (4-(5-nonly)pyridine in xylene[20]; through recovery by solvent extraction and recycle. Versatic acid + 4-nonyl pyridine for Co+Ni Columns and mixer settlers were proposed. extraction from bioleach solution containing Many papers described the recovery of metals from high Ca[21] chloride media in what appears to be a significant in- 5) Copper creased interest in that medium. Cu from chloride using mixed extractants, e.g., 1.4 Diluents selection Alamine 336 + LIX 54; Acorga CLX 50 + LIX 54[22, 23] Some knowledge of diluent selection criteria has been Cu from pickling bath with Cyanex 302 + LIX achieved over the years and there is a recognized dif- 860[24] ference in the performance relative to aliphatic vs. 6) Gallium aromatic diluents for a specific system. The aspect of TTA + TOPO for Al, Ga, and In[25] diluent oxidation by a small amount of cobalt in lat- 7) Iron eritic cobalt-nickel processes has been of some concern Primene JMT + EHPA from sulphuric for Fe; for the impact on the process[34]. Given the fact that MEHPA + primene better but not for strip- systems containing highly oxidative speciation at much ping[26]; higher cobalt concentrations have been present for DEHPA + Cyanex 923 for In and Fe from sul- decades in many processes without concern for diluent phate to give easy stripping[27]; oxidation-degradation makes this somewhat a question. Selective Fe extraction from Zn liquors with Of course, the plant experience over time has shown derivatives of ammonomethylene phosphinic that higher oxidation states of Cr, Mn, V, and Fe, for acids[28] example, can act adversely on extractants as regards 8) lanthanides degradation. Some plants add alcohol anti-oxidants to Mixed hydroxyquinoline+EHP mono- the diluent. Probably more basic research is required ethylhexyl phosphonic acid for rare earths[29]; on possible effects on the diluent. Rare earths Cyanex 272+C274 9a synthesized 1.5 Analyses new compound from China to give high load- ing, good SF, and stripping[30]; A number of analytical papers on metal analyses as Synergism for separation of trivalent lantha- well as organic constituents have been reported in nides from trivalent actinides[31]; aqueous and organic solutions. The determination of Organophosphorus extractants with 2 func- organics in aqueous raffinates (entrainment losses) has tional groups to improve on SF in lantha- been of considerable interest, and finally some analy- nides[3] ses of organics have commenced regarding the identi- 1.3.2 Systems fication of degradation products of the process. In only Because of the high interest during the period in re- 140 Tsinghua Science and Technology, April 2006, 11(2): 137-152 a few cases have crud compositions been partially regeneration or cleaning of the solvent may be analyzed. Some on-line as well as off-line analyses required to restore the system to the conditions prior to have been developed. the fouling of the solvent. In some of the chelate sys- tems, where significant degradation has occurred, a 1.6 Speciation few plants use in-situ chemical regeneration of an ex- tractant, but the overall effects of the added chemicals To date, the use and understanding of speciation in the and degradation by-products are not clear. Although SX process and its effects on mass transfer and separa- there could be a possible savings in reagent costs, the tion have been minor. Speciation of mass transfer practice may be more costly in the long term if adverse complexes does not always correspond to those gov- effects in the process are produced. The presence of erning distribution, e.g., effect of pH. As for speciation manganese in some copper circuits was shown to cause in crud samples, very little crud characterization and reagent degradation if permitted to enter the electrow- analyses have been performed. inning (EW) circuit where Mn was then oxidized to 1.7 Degradation permanganate. If there was sufficient Fe/Mn ratio of 10/1, the effect was minimized[38]. Degradation is system dependent. Degradation may be 1.8 Membrane technology caused by one or more of the following: elevated tem- perature, high acidity, high Eh, sunlight, and bacteria. Considerable work on both liquid and supported mem- The effect of sunlight on hydroxyoxime degradation branes has been reported. Although membrane tech- was documented, indicating that some reagents are nology is still a possible option in hydrometallurgy in more amenable to re-oximation than others[35]. Also, in specific cases, such as in clean solutions, possibly in other research, the data indicated that the presence of a the strip circuit, the numerous papers on the subject copper chelate stabilized the extractant from sunlight still remain in the scientific area of development. oxidation[36]. Kordosky et at.[37] have reported on the degradation 1.9 Chemical engineering of the beta-diketone, LIX 54 in the extraction of Cu 1.9.1 Fundamentals from ammoniacal solution in the Escondita copper Numerous papers still appear on droplets, single drop, plant in Chile, forming a degradation product of and micelle experiments and determining diffusional ketimine. Research by Cognis has resulted in two new mass transfer, kinetics, and interfacial phenomena and alternative extractants that could replace the LIX 54, reactions. the XI-N54 or XI-57, both resistant to degradation in 1.9.2 Contactors the presence of high concentrations of ammonia. There are now considerable designs available for mixer The extractants Cyanex 301 and 302 are both known settlers as they have been promoted as being inexpen- to degrade, by oxidizing to the disulphides, and tests in sive, easy to design, and easy to operate. However, due a mini-pilot plant have shown that Cyanex 301 de- to high entrainment losses, work was necessary on im- grades faster (8 days) than Cyanex 302 (40 days)[24]. provements in the impellor design by Lightnin[39,40] The degradation is reversible and can be restored by and the vertical smooth flow (VSF) mixer settler tech- contact with reducing agents, such as hydrogen, nickel, nology of Outokumpu[41] to decrease entrainment. The and zinc. design has been very successful, with several success- Any degradation that occurs in an SX circuit may af- ful plants in Chile operations[42]. fect the chemistry of mass transfer and discrimination There are now many other contactor designs avail- as well as the physical operation as regards dispersion able that are designed on sound engineering principles. and coalescence. This is due to the fouled or poisoned Although many columns have been in use in the solvent by the impurities resulting from the degrada- chemical, pharmaceutical, pertrochemical industries tion, together with other surfactants. A for many years, only a few columns have been applied 141 Gordon M. RitceyÿSolvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy: Present and Future as to the significant effect of surfactants on the process. This includes the metals loading onto an extractant[62], commercially at this time in the mining industry. In the past 10 years of this review, pulse columns were in- chelation effects, mass transfer, kinetics, discrimina- stalled at the Western Mining Olympic Dam operations tion, and dispersion and coalescence[63]. These surfac- in Australia[43], in which the authors compared the tants include the chemicals that may be added Bateman pulse column with the performance of mixer throughout the plant. Also, perhaps more adverse ef- settlers that the columns were replacing. The Bateman fects are the organic acids, which result from humic columns have been successfully evaluated for cobalt[44] and fulvic acids as well as degraded reagents that are and these contactors will be incorporated into a cobalt recycled[63,64]. These organic acids have the capability plant, and were evaluated on a pilot plant for copper[45] of complexing many metals in the water[63]. Work by and other applications such as nickel[46] and zinc[47]. others has shown that lathanides can be complexed by There have been numerous papers on columns, indi- humic acids[65]. The adverse effect of flocculents was cating a very significant interest in this type of contac- also researched on a cobalt-nickel circuit[66]. tor design. These column designs include the following: 1.9.5 Models spray, packed, pulsed[48,49], RDC, Oldshue-Rushton Mathematical modelling of contactors continues to be (Mixco column)[50], Khuni[51,52], and design for scale- an area of interest, but much has been from synthetic up of the Schiebel, Mixco, and Karr reciprocating col- systems. Although physical/chemical mathematical umns was presented[52]. Performance characteristics of models exist, they are under-utilized a Karr column were described[53]. Parameters for their 1.10 Pilot plant operation have been described, and this includes drop formation, drop sizes, and phase disengagement. De- Pilot testing is conducted to confirm chemistry, num- sign parameters for new columns were proposed[54]. ber of stages, recycle requirements, as well as the Centrifugal extractors have also been cited[55]. In-line physical aspects of dispersion/coalescence, crud for- mixers have suddenly become of more interest, with mation, and to compare and evaluate differing flow- possible applications described for U[56], Ni[57], and sheet configurations. Most pilot plants to this time only Cu[58]. Use of electrostatics to enhance coalescence in consider mixer settlers. The scope of a pilot program is columns was studied, as well as electric fields in gen- limited to the amount of feed solutions and budget. The eral, including effect on mass transfer[59], interfacial size usually ranges from 1.0 to 10.0 L/m for assessing tension, and droplets formation and size. Some new process chemistry, and is in the range of 20-40 L/m to contactor designs have been proposed. Finally, mixing obtain scale-up design data. The duration of pilot studies in mixer settlers were described[50]. plants varies considerably, from a few days to several 1.9.3 Dispersion / coalescence months, often depending upon budget constraints. There have been numerous papers on dispersion and coalescence, so that much scientific data exist but there 1.11 Design and engineering of plant has been relatively little application to plant design and The design considerations for solvent extraction cir- operation. Flocculants can seriously affect the rate of cuits were discussed considerably in three SX work- coalescence[60]. Some emulsion breaking methods have shops[67-69], as well as in a couple of papers[64,70,71]. been proposed, and some are in use, but optimum de- Some plants have been built with limited bench data sign and control in the plant are still required. The in- and without any pilot plant testing prior to plant design fluence of plate (material) wettability upon dispersion and construction. New technologies and equipment and throughput has been cited periodically in the past, continue to be difficult to accept in the short term. but there was some additional information published[61]. Process performance guarantees by the contractor re- 1.9.4 Surfactants quire proven process technology and equipment. De- The influence of impurities, or surfactants, in the proc- sign data are provided to engineering companies for ess has reached a more accepted level of appreciation 142 Tsinghua Science and Technology, April 2006, 11(2): 137-152 scale-up. Many plants are designed without adequate treatment, and crud have been described at the concern for materials of construction, and often there is Chuquicamata[74] and the Nchanga Consolidated Cop- over-design, because of the possibility that expansion per Mines[75]. Some plants measure interfacial tension will occur within a short time following start-up. Set- as a guide to solvent fouling. Crud recovery/treatment is practiced somewhat, but tler design is usually accepted, based on a similar plant, at a high operating cost. Treatment of crud includes: a) but many of the more recent plants have been designed settling in tanks; b) vacuum off from settler and filtra- based on settler tests. However, kinetics in the design tion; c) 3-phase centrifuge; d) send to special pond for have been virtually ignored in the design. Therefore, settling and gradual recovery; or e) discard to tailings the sizing and design of the mixer boxes are the main and skim the organic for recovery. There is some lim- concern. Because of the excess time in the mixer at high shear, if over-design has occurred because of ig- ited understanding of the role of surfactants, bacteria, noring the kinetics required for mass transfer, the ex- organic acids, and amphoteric compounds in the for- mation of crud[64,76]. Certain systems with high dis- tremely small droplets will result in slow coalescence. solved silica in the aqueous solution can exhibit gel In settler designs having a reverse flow and therefore formation during extraction. This is particularly true in an external launder, the launder is not always easily the Zr-HNO3-TBP process, and some of the difficulties accessible. The distribution of flows in a settler may have been described[77]. Investigations on a nickel cir- not be equal. And the materials of construction in the cuit showed that addition of a coagulant to the leach pilot plant are usually different from the eventual plant feed to SX could decrease the adverse effects of col- design. This aspect must be improved. loidal silica, and that anti-scalants could inhibit gyp- 1.12 Plant operation sum formation[66]. Cross-contamination, in plants that have more than a Operators are concerned about the reliability and pre- single metal recovery system, has been demonstrated dictability of solvent extraction circuits in achieving at to be extremely serious and the potential problems the end the desirable product with an acceptable cost were essentially ignored[78]. Also, the use of modifiers and minimum adverse impact on the environment. One has not been fully appreciated (loss of reagent inven- of the major economic and environmental concerns has tory to 3rd phase formation). There are now many been the often-high solvent losses (misting, entrain- plants producing high purity compounds for the elec- ment, crud, and evaporation). Breakdown estimates of tronic, ceramics, and other industries. these losses are: entrainment 50% of total; evaporation The aspects of plant design and operation problems and misting 25%; crud 25%; and solubility, spillage, in solvent extraction plants have been documented[64]. and sampling are usually small. Entrainment recovery has been with after-settlers, 1.13 Hydrometallurgical applications and some plants have incorporated coalescing media in There are many possible SX applications to hydro- the settler to reduce entrainment[72]. Dual media filters metallurgy as a result of R&D, pilot plants, and plant have also been used for solvent recovery. Air flotation has been used since the early copper operations in Ari- operations where, because of the knowledge, better plants will be designed and commissioned in the future. zona, at Bluebird Mine, and more recently, the Some examples follow: a) some citations regarding Jameson flotation cell was introduced for capture of hydrometallurgical plants for primary metal recovery, most of the entrained solvent[73]. Losses by evaporation and b) a listing of secondary or environmental process- have been reduced in some operations by installation of off-gas scrubber systems. Solvent treatment to re- ing. The lists below are not intended to be complete move poisons has been used to varying degrees of but does indicate the variety of systems that have been performance, in many plants, by slurry with clay. proposed and those adapted for commercialization. Various technologies for optimizing coalescence, or- ganic treatment, and crud have been described at 143 Gordon M. RitceyÿSolvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy: Present and Future With 2-ethylhexanol[129] 1.13.1 Primary metal recovery 6) Lanthanides Isolation of Nd from rare earth chloride solu- 1) Arsenic As and H2SO4 with TBP[79,80], Cyanex 923, tion with Ionquest 801[130]; 925[81]; U, Th, and lanthanides using Cyanex 923 from As, Sb, and Bi from tankhouse electrolyte with HNO3/ H3PO4[131] Cyanex 923[82] 7) Manganese Zn, Mn, and Ca from Co, Ni in sulphate with 2) Cobalt-nickel laterites Sulphate[44,83-96]; PC-88a or Cyanex 272[90] Alkaline media[96-102]; 8) Platinum group Pt group metals a review[132]; Chloride[103]; Separation of Pd from Pt in chloride solution Ni laterite processing[104]; with substituted pyrazole compounds[133] Pilot plant for Ni[105]; Pilot plants were described and plants de- 9) Scandium Sc from sulphate with Cyanex 272[134] signed for mixer settlers[98] as well as pulse 10) Silver columns; Ag and Au from thiourea using Cyanex 302[135]; Separation of Mn from Co in sulphate with Ag from chloride with tri-n-butyl- and tri-n- DEHPA[106] octylphosphine sulphides[136] 3) Copper 11) Tantalum/niobium Cu by SX-review of 40 years[107]; Ta/Nb separation in high purity recovery by Cu, Zn, and Cd from waste streams DEHPA, Alamine 336+isodecanol in Shellsol AB dilu- carboxylic acids, Cyanex 272, and Cyanex ent in a fluoride medium[137]; 471 from sulphate[108]; Ni and Zn with LIX 984 from nitrate[138] Impurities from Cu tankhouse liquors with 12) Zinc Cyanex 923[109]; Zn plants treating various feed materials[139]; Cu from sulphate[110, 111], the Girilambone Recovery from primary and secondary plant experience[112]; comparison of LIX 984 sources[140,141]; and Acorga M5640 for Cu in China[113]; Recovery from battery waste[142]; Cu from ammoniacal carbonate leach with Updated technologies[143] for ZINCEX, ZIN- LIX 54-100[114]; CLOR, CUPREX, MERCUREX, and ARSEP; Cu-world operating data[115]; Acid recovery processes[143]; Cu from chloride[116-118]; Modified ZINCEX process[144]; Cu from processing of concentrates[119,120]; DEHPA+MEHPA for Zn-Cd separation with Extractant evaluation for 2 pilot plants[121]; TBP modifier[18] Cu and Ni from tankhouse effluent[122]; 13) Nuclear Chloride metallurgy review for complex sul- Chemical flowsheets for the Purex process[145]; phides[116, 123, 124] Treatment of radioactive waste for separation 4) Chromium of transuranic elements; Chromium extraction from sulphate by or- New U operations and expansions on older ganophorus reagents[125] plants 5) Gold 1.13.2 Environmental and secondary recovery Au from chloride refining liquors with Cyanex The application of solvent extraction to processing ef- 925 or 923[126]; fluents and residues has still continued to be of interest, With Cyanex 471X from chloride[127]; and the followings are some of the typical referenced Gold refinery[128]; 144 Tsinghua Science and Technology, April 2006, 11(2): 137-152 applications: to identify the causes. Electrostatic generation or 1) Acid sparks are always possible causes. A few plants have HCl extraction by Cyanex 921, 923, 925[125]; adequate grounding for dissipation of charges that H2SO4, HNO3, HCl recovery from electroplat- build-up. High shear mixing and pumping large vol- ing, pickling acids, and diluted acids with umes through pipes will generate a charge if not Cyanex 923[33,143,146] grounded. The use of high flash point diluents is now 2) Chromium almost universal, there being few exceptions where a Extraction with Alamine 336 from industrial low flash point aromatic diluent is used. Adequate plating waste[147] and waste waters[148]; grounding of solvent storage tanks and diluent tanks Cr from ground water with Aliquat 336[147] are necessary. Papers on the subject have been pub- 3) Cobalt and nickel lished[161,162]. Co and Ni separation from HCl with Cyanex 923 from spent catalysts[149]; 2 Projections to the Future Ni from plating baths with LIX 84I[150]; 2.1 Chemistry 4) Copper Cu from pickling baths with Cyanex 302 + Speciation chemistry should be used to optimize LIX 860[24]; chemical separations and product purity. Also, the na- Cu from ammoniacal etch solutions with LIX ture and effect of Eh-pH in the process require optimi- 84[151,152] zation. The development of novel and improved 5) Cyanide scrubbing techniques will enhance the product purity. Cyanide recovery from effluents with Cyanex It would be useful to have extractants available to use 923 instead of by volatilization[153] below the pH of the hydrolysis of Fe. There could be 6) Gallium the use of applied synergism in the process other Ga and In from Zn residues in chloride with than the intentional blends for the manufacture of TBP, DEHPA, and EHPNA[154] many chelating extractants. More extractants for appli- 7) Indium cation to nuclear waste may appear. With further re- In from Zn residues, using DEHPA from sul- search, an improved understanding of the organic deg- phate[155,156] radation should be resulted in within the process, as 8) Iron well as an improved understanding of the analyses and Fe and Zn with PC88A and DEHPA; chemistry relative to crud and its formation. Fe and In from zinc residues; H2SO4 and Fe 2.2 Physical chemistry and Ni from pickling bath[157]; Fe, Ti, and V recovery from waste chloride It will be necessary to decrease the shear in mixing to liquors with TBP + EHPA[158] minimize creation of stable emulsions and other prob- 9) Silver lems associated with fine droplets and air. There is a Ag from waste nitrate with Cyanex 301, 302, requirement for an increased examination and charac- Aliquat 336[159] terization of cruds to reduce crud formation by a better 10) Zinc understanding on how they are formed. Also, an im- Zn from chloride solution with TBP[160] proved understanding of the role of surfactants in the 1.13.3 Health and safety SX process is required. Clothing has varied from synthetics and all-cotton to mixtures. As regard static electricity, the cotton cloth- 2.3 Chemical engineering ing would be recommended as the least potential haz- Numerous contacting equipments have been studied ard. Recent fires in several solvent extraction plants the next stage is the application to specific situations have been major, and therefore, there is a great concern 145 Gordon M. RitceyÿSolvent Extraction in Hydrometallurgy: Present and Future where comparisons are made of mass transfer, kinetics, diluent selection) as well as the method of achieving and equilibria. Pilot plants will examine contactors mass transfer. Therefore, the contactor selection is of other than only mixer settlers that are the present phi- major importance where plant performance enhance- losophy. Only a few plants to date have been success- ment may result, e.g., ful in adapting other than mixer settlers but this will a) it is essential to have sufficient bench data fol- change. Models of multi-component systems are re- lowed by several mini-pilot plants to establish capital quired with mass transfer and kinetics on real solutions, and operating costs and determine possible problems; including the validation of the model. Increased b) the operator needs to take a risk with new process knowledge of micelles, interfaces, and stable emul- equipment; sions and cruds will assist in the design of contactors c) concern by the operator of the large, and expen- based on drops relative to mass transfer and coales- sive, solvent inventory or the necessity for maintaining cence. Design of robust monitoring equipment and a certain oxidation state may lead to other contactors techniques will assist in an improved understanding of use; the plant, and obtaining data for modelling. Validation d) contactors and their operation will be determined of computer models requires information from the con- by the drop size required for mass transfer, the kinetics, tractor (e.g., columns) designers and manufacturers for and the effect on phase disengagement; scale-up. e) various contactors will be compared in pilot scale tests, including mixer settlers, columns, and in-line 2.4 Pilot plants and company philosophy mixers. An early decision in the project is required; f) mixer settler designs will have improved distribu- The size of a pilot plant will be designed on the basis tion of flows in settler; launders more accessible, re- of flows, kinetics, phase disengagement and not over- duced shear in mixing, reduced air in droplets, etc.; designed as in the case of present plants. Cost has al- g) more applied design/research will improve on the ways been one of the most critical factors in decisions design based on kinetics and equilibria and not major on the size of pilot plants, but this has to change so that over-design ; the decision is based also on the information required h) the time of mixing vs. effect on drop for the design of the optimum plant. That is, we have size/coalescence and metals discrimination will be to question what we want from the pilot plant. Contac- considered in the optimum design; tor selection will be based on the considerations of the i) design will also be determined by the phase sepa- chemical/physical aspects. The duration of piloting ration characteristics of the particular process and stage, will still be site-specific and depend on the complexi- taking into account any possible surfactant affects; and ties of the process as well as the relative experience of j) materials of construction will be more important, the technical personnel. The decisions to scale-up to particularly to enhance phase disengagement, as well plant or abandon the process will be determined by the as for piping and containers. quality of the product, the recovery, the economics, and the environmental impact. More input is required 2.6 Operation from the operator and the engineering contractor in or- der to define the total integrated flowsheet by identify- To improve the plant operations, there will be more ing all streams, compositions, flows, process variables, controls for process optimization, including the follow- environmental, health, safety impacts, materials of ing, in no particular order of importance: construction, and product specifications. a) increased use of columns and possibly in-line mixers where drop size can be controlled to provide 2.5 Design engineering increased throughputs and increased rates of coales- cence, and therefore, reduced solvent inventories and The plants in the future should be designed based on reduced solvent entrainment losses; the chemistry (PLS composition, extractant choice, 146 Tsinghua Science and Technology, April 2006, 11(2): 137-152 b) improved coalescing devices will be used if v) monitoring and control of speciation and Eh-pH potential fire hazards can be eliminated; where applicable to process; c) run the plant at the design flows or higher not w) more measurements for interfacial tension to lower; control the impurity accumulation on the solvent, as d) control the time in mixing that is dictated by the well as viscosity and density measurements; and kinetics required for mass transfer and optimization of x) on-line monitoring and analyses of organics in coalescence; aqueous discharges to ensure environmental limits of e) control phase continuity to optimize both mass discharges. transfer (as well as discrimination) and phase separa- 2.7 Applications tion; f) minimize air in the mixing and settling through In the next few years, we should see more emphasis on proper design and operation; operating cost reduction by accepting technology that g) minimize turbulence in the settler zone to reduce has been proven scientifically and in subsequent pilot solvent losses and misting; plant trials. The days of accepting old technology h) dedicated stage for continuous treatment of any based on the fact that it has worked and been used in bleed streams (e.g., regeneration) instead of treatment a number of plants should turn to using the best of a whole stream on a campaign basis; technology to achieve the objectives of economics, en- i) crud characterization/analyses; vironment, and products . There are already many pos- j) improved understanding of the role of bacteria in sible options available to future plants, from the proc- the solvent extraction process; ess side as well as the equipment and methodology. k) role of organic surfactants in process, and the Some of the new advances could include the following: possible requirement for treatment of feed water by a) solvent-in-pulp systems; b) additional metals and diluent scrubbing; by-product recovery; c) recovery of very high purity l) destruction of bacteria in feed water by addition of metals; d) chemical refineries at the mine site; e) in- biocides, UV, ozonation; creased treatment of tank house bleeds, waste dusts, m) elimination of alcohols in the system because of scrap for recycle; f) removal/recovery of noxious gases their degradation to organic acids; from smelters and refineries; g) treatment of nuclear n) improved settler design with the use of dissimilar wastes; h) more acid recovery plants; i) treatment of materials for the plates will result in improved coales- effluents for contaminant removal to meet environ- cence and decreased solvent losses; mental; and j) coupling of IX with SX to assure safe o) minimizing of air entrainment will reduce or discharge of effluents as well as possible activated car- eliminate the misting problem; bon treatment. p) possible implementation of more in-situ reagent 2.8 Plant safety and worker hazards regeneration; q) use of synergistic mixtures for enhanced pH and Plant safety will be improved by: a) ensuring proper kinetics and equilibrium; grounding throughout the plant (tanks and lines); b) r) treatment of the stripped solvent that has been minimizing open tanks of solvent and evaporation in poisoned using a wash stage such as dilute alkali; the solvent area; c) minimizing possible static through- s) diluent wash between multi-circuits and on- out the plant; d) selection of cotton clothing instead of stream monitoring and analyses; synthetic materials; e) ensuring adequate ventilation; t) diluent wash treatment of final raffinates to re- negative pressure in circuits; f) keeping hatches (in move residual extractant; mixer settlers) closed and minimizing venting to at- u) carbon columns treatment to remove residual or- mosphere by scrubbers; g) automatic discharge of sol- ganics before discharge to environment; vent to an external sump in case of fire; h) developing 147 Gordon M. 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