Language and Literature
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Introduction: relevance theory and literary style
Adrian Pilkington
Language and Literature 1996 5: 157
DOI: 10.1177/096394709600500301
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ARTICLE
Introduction: relevance
style
theory and literary 1
Adrian
London, UK
Pilkington, Royal Holloway University of
Relevance
theory is a theory of verbal communication grounded in a theory of
cognition and, as such, has influenced and contributed to research in a number of
related
disciplines, most notably linguistics, psychology and philosophy. 2 It also
offers a new theoretical
perspective on the study of rhetoric and style, a
lines of research for those
encourage new working at the
perspective that should
 interface* of
language studies and literary criticism.
In this introduction I wish to in which relevance
suggest some ways theory
contribute to a better more
and,
may understanding of literary style, particularly,
to the
understanding of poetic effects. Before I do that I will make a few general
remarks about relevance
theory as a pragmatic theory. It should be recognised
that the account I offer here is very
Clark, in this
simplified and incomplete.
issue,
provides his own brief summary and more comprehensive accounts of the
3
reference.
theory are given by works cited in the
Relevance
theory rejects both code models of verbal communication and
claimed, involves two
purely inferential accounts. Utterance interpretation, it is
distinct
phases. A context-independent decoding phase yields semantic
representations which provide a schematic but radically incomplete
representation of the thoughts that are communicated. An inferential phase brings
non-linguistic contextual information to bear upon the output of decoding to
arrive at the
fully-fledged thoughts that are communicated. This inferential phase
involves
fleshing out the semantic representation by resolving ambiguities,
assigning reference and enriching the content of concepts that contribute to the
proposition expressed. It also determines the addresser s attitude to the
proposition expressed and leads to the derivation of
implicatures. In this view
thoughts are considerably richer in meaning than the meanings of the linguistic
expressions that are used to communicate them.
A
context, in the form of
pragmatic theory has to explain how particular
can
constructed, before it
concepts and contextual assumptions, is accessed or
play a role in inferencing. It should be noted that for relevance theory context
construction is a
dynamic part of utterance interpretation: context is not static
and
pre-given, as it is in earlier code model accounts. The concepts that
contribute to the are also addresses at which
lexical,
thoughts communicated
logical and encyclopaedic information are stored. The encyclopaedic entry
attached to a
conceptual address contains assumptions carrying information
about the extension of the
concept and culturally shared information relating to
the
concept. These assumptions become available for use as contextual
assumptions in the inferencing stage of utterance interpretation, together with
on the basis of
assumptions constructed perceptual information derived from the
physical environment. In the case of literary communication they, together with
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158
the text, are the exclusive source of
assumptions derived from earlier parts of
contextual
assumptions.
Utterance
interpretation is guided by the search for an interpretation that is
consistent with the
principle of relevance. According to the principle of
relevance
every utterance carries the
presumption that its interpretation will
provide a satisfactory range of contextual effects for no unjustifiable processing
effort.4 Contextual effects are achieved when new information interacts with a
context of
existing assumptions in one of three ways: by causing a relatively
weakly held existing assumption to be strengthened, by
contradicting and
eliminating an
existing assumption, or by combining with an existing assumption
to
yield a contextual implication. In the latter case the contextual assumption is a
alone, nor
logical implication that is derivable neither from the new information
from the context information and the context combined.
alone, but from the new
New information is relevant when it achieves contextual effects in that
context;
its relevance is
relatively greater, the greater the contextual effects. The other
factor
affecting relevance is the processing effort required to decode an
utterance, to access context and to
compute contextual effects in that context. In
this case the smaller the
processing effort involved in interpretation the greater
the relevance.
one of the main factors
According to this view guiding interpretation is the
relative
accessibility of assumptions: the more accessible they are the easier they
are to or her utterance takes into
process. The addresser in fashioning his
account what he or she considers to be the
concepts and assumptions that are
most accessible to the addressee. The addressee follows a route of least effort in
of contextual
using the most accessible concepts and assumptions until a range
effects that
the addresser could
rationally have intended is derived. Context is
extended until such effects are achieved. These effects then constitute the
interpretation.
An addresser
might achieve particular stylistic effects by creating special
kinds of
processing difficulties for the addressee. He or she might, for example,
context, which, once constructed, has to
encourage the construction of a certain
be
rejected and replaced with another. Such is the case with jokes, or with
humorous utterances more
(See Jodlowiec 1991 and Curc6 1995 for
generally.
more detailed
accounts.) The
pragmatic garden-pathing involved here is linked to
a
special kind of physiological response, culminating perhaps in laughter, and to
a
special kind of qualitative response or experience - what it feels like for
something to be funny.
An addresser may cause the addressee to in a more extensive search
engage
through context than is normally the case. Metaphorical utterances typically
communicate a set of
range of assumptions simultaneously.~ This assumptions
constitutes a
complex thought that the addresser wishes to communicate. The
contextual
assumptions used to interpret a standard or conventional metaphor are
relatively easily accessible. Because the addressee is fairly confident that the
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159
give rise to are intended by the addresser they are said to be
implicatures these
usually not possible to find adequate
strongly communicated. Even so, it is
metaphors in terms of a list of what might be taken as
paraphrases for such
metaphor seems to lose some of its expressive power in the
implicatures. The
suggests that a further range of implicatures are more weakly
paraphrase. This
Where the addressee is
communicated.
reasonably certain that the addresser
wishes to communicate a certain
implicature, then it is said to be a strong
implicolllre. Where the addressee is given some encouragement to explore
context but is less certain as to whether the addresser wishes to
further,
the
communicate
resulting implicatures, then these are said to be wean
iniplicatitres. The notion of weak implicature, developed within relevance theory,
is
crucially important for explaining poetic effects. Poetic metaphors, for
example, are characterised in terms of the communication of a wide array of
weak
implicatures. This notion of weak implicature helps to
explain the
of
(the
indeterminacy of poetic effects problem of saying exactly what range
communicated). It also helps to explain why
implicatures are poetic metaphors
and other sources of
difficult, if not
poetic effects are impossible, to translate.
As in the communication
case for of
humour, in the
poetic effects a special
kind of a
pragmatic processing is encouraged, in this case involving
through the
wide-ranging search encyclopaedic entries of certain concepts for
assumptions that might be used in the interpretation process. This kind of
pragmatic processing might similarly be linked to a special kind of physiological
and to a
response, special kind of qualitative response or experience - an
aesthetic response or
experience.
It should be noted that as described to
effects, here, refer
stylistic assumptions
communicated
(in various combinations and with
varying degrees of strength).
In terms used
by Leech and Short (1981, 1), are,
Chapter stylistic choices in this
view, choices of matter or content rather than choices of manner or
expression.
The certain
assumptions communicated also affect the reader in specific ways. A
kind of
pragmatic processing is encouraged, leading to a certain kind of
This is because the addresser has a certain kind of
response.
qualitative complex
thought, linked to certain qualitative properties, that he or she wishes to
communicate.
It should also be noted that no
special literary reading strategies, conventions
or maxims are needed to
communicated, or how
explain how poetic effects are
literary communication works more generally. There is the same on-line search
for
intepretations consistent with the principle of relevance. What distinguishes
poetic effects is that extra processing effort is required because of the lack of
of
readily accessible contextual assumptions that might lead to a range
satisfactory contextual effects. A more extensive search through context is
encouraged. Where addressees find such context rich enough, the extra
processing effort is compensated for by a wider range of contextual effects than
would
ways,
normally be the case. Addressees may find contexts rich in different
of course, or
they may not find them rich at all.
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160
Poets
(and novelists and
playwrights) may spend a considerable amount of
time
right order. They take
making sure that the right words are placed in the
this trouble because the
thoughts that they wish to communicate are extremely
rich and subtle.
Only by adopting a theoretical approach of the kind that
relevance
offers,
theory concentrating on thoughts as complex sets of
weakness,
assumptions of varying degrees of strength and interacting
dynamically on-line with other sets of assumptions, can justice be done to the
complexity of the thoughts that may be communicated. As I have argued
elsewhere
1992) the notion of literariness
(Pilkington might more satisfactorily
be defined in terms of mental
representations and mental processes, of the
here, than in terms of the
specific kind described linguistic properties of texts.
itself,
Linguistic foregrounding does not necessarily, of lead to poetic effects.
This
special issue of Language and Literature is devoted to articles which
explore the implications of relevance theory for the study of rhetoric and literary
style. In the case of rhetoric relevance theory has reanalysed tropes and offered
new accounts of how more
they are interpreted in the light of the general theory
of communication and in a consistent with current
way that is psycholinguistic
research. This
reanalysis rejects the Gricean view that tropes deviate from a
literal norm.6 Relevance
them,
theory uses a number of new concepts to explain
most
and, in the case of
importantly the notions of irrterpretative use irony,
echoic rrse. These
concepts are explained and illustrated in the articles that follow.
Papafragou and Vicente tackle theoretical issues relating to metonymy and
metaphor respectively. They are both concerned with a cognitive explanation of
how these a
tropes are interpreted. Papafragou shows that there is stylistic
continuum from conventional
through to creative uses of metonymy. She
metonymy using the notion of
develops an account of creative uses of
interpretive use. She also discusses the process of semanticisation that metonymy
interesting theoretical issues for the
may undergo. In particular this article raises
field of lexical semantics and for the notion of
interpretative use within
relevance
theory.
One incidental feature of
article, which I would like to draw
Papafragou s
attention to is her criticism of Lakoff and Johnson s
here, (1980) account of
metonymy. Lakoff and associates are mainly famous for their account of
(1989), in
metaphor. Lakoff and Turner particular, is a key text that has been
extremely influential for research into poetic metaphor. Given the influence of
Lakoff s it is
work,
important to point out the differences between the two
approaches, as Papafragou does (indicating problems that the Lakoff account has
in
data), and to
explaining some of the develop a debate between the two
accounts. One of the main differences would appear to be that Lakoff and
associates are concerned with structural
questions about how conceptual domains
map onto each other rather than with the process of interpretation.
of
Vicente s article contrasts a relevance-theoretic account
metaphor with
semantic and Gricean accounts. The main interest of this article is the
consideration it
gives to alternative accounts of metaphor that may be consistent
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161
the
with
general relevance theory account of verbal communication. In
arguments are considered for the view that metaphors contribute ad
particular,
hoc
concepts directly to the proposition expressed.
Both of these articles are concerned with
general accounts of metonymy and
metaphor. But both take note of the stylistic differences between standard and
uses of these
creative
tropes and offer some explanation for these differences.
These
discussions,
although they do not focus directly on literary style, are of
fundamental
importance to an understanding of how these tropes are used to
achieve
poetic effects.
The articles
by MacMahon and Clark are more directly concerned with the
theory to literary texts. MacMahon discusses the use of
application of relevance
voice in literature in terms of the relevance-theoretic notion of echoic
interpretation. The article stresses that the flow of ideas and insights between
literary studies is
pragmatic theory (specifically relevance theory) and potentially
a
highly productive one.
Clark s article discusses one
way in which relevance theory may suggest
for the
ideas
teaching of literary stylistics, as well as for the teaching of
semantics and
pragmatics. He also presents an argument in favour of developing
an  interface between relevance
theory pragmatics and literary studies and
suggests, in particular, that the study of literary texts should raise useful
a
questions and be good testing ground for relevance theory.
There is
clearly room for disagreement with regard to the theoretical accounts
developed for tropes and for ideas concerning the possible applications of
relevance
introduction)
theory to literary studies. The articles here (including this
in no
way represent an orthodoxy. While the contributors to this issue might
want to
here,
question points argued for in the other articles presented
various
there is nevertheless a basic
agreement that relevance theory does present a
new
theoretical
radically perspective on the study of rhetoric and style that not
only offers extremely rich insights, but also allows questions to be asked which
were or difficult to
previously either impossible pursue.
Notes
1. I am
Carston,
very grateful to Robyn Billy Clark and Katie Wales for discussion and comments.
2. For a
(1995).
good bibliography see Sperber and Wilson
3. The
edition,
(1995). This second to
key text is Sperber and Wilson quote the blurb on the back
includes a new Postface
cover, 1986,
outlining developments in Relevance Theory since
discussing the more serious criticisms of the theory, and
envisaging possible revisions or
extensions . It also
provides a bibliography of work in relevance theory. Sperber
comprehensive
and Wilson
(1987)
provides a useful precis of relevance theory, prior to the envisaged  possible
revisions or extensions . This is followed commentaries and a
by peer response to the
commentaries. Wilson of the
(1994)
provides another useful summary theory and Blakemore
(1992)
provides a textbook account. A special issue of the journal Lingua (1992) contains
articles on a
variety of aspects of relevance theory, including several on rhetoric and style.
For work more
specifically in the areas of rhetoric and style see in particular Sperber and
Wilson
(1985/6) on (1992) on
metaphor, Wilson and Sperber irony, and Sperber and Wilson
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162
(1990) on rhetoric in (1989) and (1993) discuss general aspects of style.
general. Blakemore
Forceville
(1994) discusses (1992) uses relevance
pictorial metaphor in advertising. Reboul
theory to discuss aspects of literary style. Fabb (forthcoming) makes use of relevance theory in
on
chapters metaphor and irony in literature.
4. What is now referred to as the second
principle of relevance applies to all acts of
ostensive-inferential communication.
5. See
(1985/6) for a much fuller account than can be given here. Vicente in
Sperber and Wilson
this issue deals in greater detail with
metaphor.
6. An
example of
psycholinguistic research that focuses on tropes and rejects  the literal meaning
found, (1994).
hypothesis can be for example, in Gibbs
7. See Carston
(forthcoming) for a more detailed discussion of the view that  loose uses
(including metaphor) contribute to the proposition expressed by an utterance.
References
Blakemore, D. (1989)
Linguistic form and pragmatic interpretation: the explicit and the implicit, in
L.
(ed.) The Pragmatics Routledge, London,
Hickey of Style, pp. 28-51
Oxford
Biackwell,
Blakemore, D. (1992) Understanding Utterances: An Introduction to Pragmatics,
reformulations,
Blakemore, D. (1993) The relevance of Language and Literature
2.(2): 101-20
Carston, R. (forthcoming) Enrichment and loosening: complementary processes in deriving the
proposition expressed, UCL Working Papers in Linguistics, London
a relevance
Curcó, C. (1995) Some observations on the
pragmatics of humorous interpretations:
theory approach, UCL Working Papers in Linguistics, 7: 27-47
Oxford
Literature, Blackwell,
Fabb, N. (forthcoming) Linguistics and
C. Amsterdam
Forceville, (1994) Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising, Vrije
Universiteit,
Gibbs, R. (1994) The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language and Understanding,
Press,
Cambridge University Cambridge
tick, UCL
Jodtowiec, M. (1991) What makes jokes Working Papers in Linguistics 3: 241-53
Press,
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By, Chicago University Chicago
Lakoff, G. and Turner, M. (1989) More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor,
Press,
Chicago University Chicago
G. and
Leech, Short, M. (1981)
Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional
Prose,
Longman, London
Pilkington, A. (1992) Poetic effects,
Lingua 87: 29-51
Reboul, A. (1992) Fiction,
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Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. (1985/86) Loose Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society LXXXVI:
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(ed.) (1991) Reader, Oxford Press,
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Wilson, D. (1986) Relevance: Communication and Blackwell, Oxford
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iSperber, D. and Presumptions of The Behavioural and Brain Sciences
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Wilson, D. (1990) Rhetoric and relevance, in J. Bender and D. (eds) The
Sperber, D. and Wellbery
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Practice, Press, Stanford, CA,
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Wilson, D. (1995) (2nd edn) Relevance: Communication and Blackwell,
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Wilson, D. (1994) Relevance and understanding, in G. Brown et al. (eds) Language and
Press, Oxford, pp. 35-58
Understanding, Oxford University
Wilson, D, and (1992) On verbal
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