The Elements of Style
T H E
ELEMENTS
O F
Style
BY
W I L L I A M S T R U N K Jr.
With Revisions, an
Introduction, and a Chapter on
Writing
BY
E. B. W H I T E
F O U R T H E D I T I O N
ALLYN AND BACON
Boston London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore
C O P Y R I G H T © 2 0 0 0 , 1 9 7 9 , A L L Y N & B A C O N
A Pearson Education Company
Needham Heights, Massachusetts 02494
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
Publisher.
Earlier editions © 1959, 1972 by Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
The Introduction originally appeared, in slightly different form, in The New Yorker,
and was copyrighted in 1957 by The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
The Elements of Style, Revised Edition, by William Strunk Jr. and Edward A. Tenney,
copyright 1935 by Oliver Strunk.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Strunk, William, 1869 1946.
The elements of style / by William Strunk, Jr. ; with revisions,
an introduction, and a chapter on writing by E. B. White.  4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-205-30902-X (paperback).  ISBN 0-205-31342-6 (casebound)
1. English language Rhetoric. 2. English language Style.
3. Report writing. I. White, E. B. (Elwyn Brooks), 1899 .
II. Title.
PE1408.S772 1999
808'.042 dc21 99-16419
CIP
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 9 9
Contents
 FOREWORDix
INTRODUCTIONxiii
I. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE1
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding
 s.1
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single
conjunction, use a comma after each term except
the last.2
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between
commas.2
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing
an independent clause.5
5. Donot joinindependentclauseswith a comma.5
6. Do not break sentences in two.7
7. Use a colon after an independent clause to
introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an
amplification, or an illustrative quotation.7
8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or
interruption and to announce a long appositive or
summary.9
9. The number of the subject determines the number
of the verb.9
10. Use the proper case of pronoun.11
11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence
must refer to the gram-
matical subject.13
II. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF
COMPOSITION15
12.Choose a suitable design and hold to it.15
13. Make the paragraph the unit of com-
position.15
14. Use the active voice.18
15. Put statements in positive form.19
16. Use definite, specific, concrete language.21
17. Omit needless words.23
18. Avoid a succession of loose sentences.25
19. Express coordinate ideas in similar form.26
20. Keep related words together.28
21. In summaries, keep to one tense.31
22. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the
end.32
III. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM34
IV. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY
MISUSED39
V. AN APPROACH TO STYLE
(With a List of Reminders)66
1. Place yourself in the background.70
2. Write in a way that comes naturally.70
3. Work from a suitable design.70
4. Write with nouns and verbs.71
5. Revise and rewrite.72
6. Do not overwrite.72
7. Do not overstate.73
8. Avoid the use of qualifiers.73
9. Do not affect a breezy manner.73
10. Use orthodox spelling.74
11. Do not explain too much.75
12. Do not construct awkward adverbs.75
13. Make sure the reader knows who is speaking.76
14. Avoid fancy words.76
15. Do not use dialect unless your ear is good.78
16. Be clear.79
17. Do not inject opinion.79
18. Use figures of speech sparingly.80
19. Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity.80
20. Avoid foreign languages.81
21. Prefer the standard to the offbeat.81
AFTERWORD87
GLOSSARY89
INDEX97
Foreword
by Roger Angell
THE FIRST writer I watched at work was my stepfather, E.
B. White. Each Tuesday morning, he would close his study
door and sit down to write the  Notes and Comment page
for The New Yorker. The task was familiar to him he was
required to file a few hundred words of editorial or personal
commentary on some topic in or out of the news that
week but the sounds of his typewriter from his room came
in hesitant bursts, with long silences in between. Hours
went by. Summoned at last for lunch, he was silent and
preoccupied, and soon excused himself to get back to the
job. When the copy went off at last, in the afternoon RFD
pouch we were in Maine, a day s mail away from New
York he rarely seemed satisfied.  It isn t good enough,
he said sometimes.  I wish it were better.
Writing is hard, even for authors who do it all the time.
Less frequent practitioners the job applicant; the business
executive with an annual report to get out; the high school
senior with a Faulkner assignment; the graduate-school
student with her thesis proposal; the writer of a letter of
condolence often get stuck in an awkward passage or find
a muddle on their screens, and then blame themselves.
What should be easy and flowing looks tangled or feeble or
overblown not what was meant at all. What s wrong with
me, each one thinks. Why can t I get this right?
It was this recurring question, put to himself, that must
have inspired White to revive and add to a textbook by an
English professor of his, Will Strunk Jr., that he had first
read in college, and to get it published. The result, this quiet
book, has been in print for forty years, and has offered
more than ten million writers a helping hand. White knew
that a compendium of specific tips about singular and
plural verbs, parentheses, the  that   which scuffle, and
many others could clear up a recalcitrant sentence or
subclause when quickly reconsulted, and that the larger
principles needed to be kept in plain sight, like a wall
sampler.
How simple they look, set down here in White s last
chapter:  Write in a way that comes naturally,  Revise and
rewrite,  Do not explain too much, and the rest; above
all, the cleansing, clarion  Be clear. How often I have
turned to them, in the book or in my mind, while trying to
start or unblock or revise some piece of my own writing!
They help they really do. They work. They are the way.
E. B. White s prose is celebrated for its ease and
clarity just think of Charlotte s Web but maintaining
this standard required endless attention. When the new
issue of The New Yorker turned up in Maine, I sometimes
saw him reading his  Comment piece over to himself, with
only a slightly different expression than the one he d worn
on the day it went off. Well, O.K., he seemed to be saying.
At least I got the elements right.
This edition has been modestly updated, with word
processors and air conditioners making their first
appearance among White s references, and with a light
redistribution of genders to permit a feminine pronoun or
female farmer to take their places among the males who
once innocently served him. Sylvia Plath has knocked
Keats out of the box, and I notice that  America has
become  this country in a sample text, to forestall a
subsequent and possibly demeaning  she in the same
paragraph. What is not here is anything about E-mail the
rules-free, lower-case flow that cheerfully keeps us in touch
these days. E-mail is conversation, and it may be replacing
the sweet and endless talking we once sustained (and
tucked away) within the informal letter. But we are all
writers and readers as well as communicators, with the need
at times to please and satisfy ourselves (as White put it)
with the clear and almost perfect thought.
Introduction*
AT THE close of the first World War, when I was a student
at Cornell, I took a course called English 8. My professor
was William Strunk Jr. A textbook required for the course
was a slim volume called The Elements of Style, whose
author was the professor himself. The year was 1919. The
book was known on the campus in those days as  the little
book, with the stress on the word  little. It had been
privately printed by the author.
I passed the course, graduated from the university, and
forgot the book but not the professor. Some thirty-eight
years later, the book bobbed up again in my life when
Macmillan commissioned me to revise it for the college
market and the general trade. Meantime, Professor Strunk
had died.
The Elements of Style, when I reexamined it in 1957,
seemed to me to contain rich deposits of gold. It was Will
Strunk s parvum opus, his attempt to cut the vast tangle of
English rhetoric down to size and write its rules and
principles on the head of a pin. Will himself had hung the
tag  little on the book; he referred to it sardonically and
with secret pride as  the little book, always giving the
word  little a special twist, as though he were putting a
spin on a ball. In its original form, it was a forty-three page
summation of the case for cleanliness, accuracy, and brevity
in the use of English. Today, fifty-two years later, its vigor
is unimpaired, and for sheer pith I think it probably sets a
record that is not likely to be broken. Even after I got
through tampering with it, it was still a tiny thing, a barely
tarnished gem. Seven rules of usage, eleven principles of
composition, a few matters of form, and a list of words and
expressions commonly misused that was the sum and
substance of Professor Strunk s work. Somewhat
audaciously, and in an attempt to give my publisher his
money s worth, I added a chapter called  An Approach to
Style, setting forth my own prejudices, my notions of
error, my articles of faith. This chapter (Chapter V) is
addressed particularly to those who feel that English prose
composition is not only a necessary skill but a sensible
pursuit as well a way to spend one s days. I think
Professor Strunk would not object to that.
A second edition of the book was published in 1972. I
have now completed a third revision. Chapter IV has been
refurbished with words and expressions of a recent vintage;
four rules of usage have been added to Chapter I. Fresh
examples have been added to some of the rules and
principles, amplification has reared its head in a few places
in the text where I felt an assault could successfully be
made on the bastions of its brevity, and in general the book
has received a thorough overhaul to correct errors, delete
bewhiskered entries, and enliven the argument.
Professor Strunk was a positive man. His book contains
rules of grammar phrased as direct orders. In the main I
have not tried to soften his commands, or modify his
pronouncements, or remove the special objects of his scorn.
I have tried, instead, to preserve the flavor of his discontent
while slightly enlarging the scope of the discussion. The
Elements of Style does not pretend to survey the whole
field. Rather it proposes to give in brief space the principal
requirements of plain English style. It concentrates on
fundamentals: the rules of usage and principles of
composition most commonly violated.
The reader will soon discover that these rules and
principles are in the form of sharp commands, Sergeant
Strunk snapping orders to his platoon.  Do not join
independent clauses with a comma. (Rule 5.)  Do not
break sentences in two. (Rule 6.)  Use the active voice.
(Rule 14.)  Omit needless words. (Rule 17.)  Avoid a
succession of loose sentences. (Rule 18.)  In summaries,
keep to one tense. (Rule 21.) Each rule or principle is
followed by a short hortatory essay, and usually the
exhortation is followed by, or interlarded with, examples in
parallel columns the true vs. the false, the right vs. the
wrong, the timid vs. the bold, the ragged vs. the trim. From
every line there peers out at me the puckish face of my
professor, his short hair parted neatly in the middle and
combed down over his forehead, his eyes blinking
incessantly behind steel-rimmed spectacles as though he
had just emerged into strong light, his lips nibbling each
other like nervous horses, his smile shuttling to and fro
under a carefully edged mustache.
 Omit needless words! cries the author on page 23, and
into that imperative Will Strunk really put his heart and
soul. In the days when I was sitting in his class, he omitted
so many needless words, and omitted them so forcibly and
with such eagerness and obvious relish, that he often
seemed in the position of having shortchanged himself a
man left with nothing more to say yet with time to fill, a
radio prophet who had out-distanced the clock. Will Strunk
got out of this predicament by a simple trick: he uttered
every sentence three times. When he delivered his oration
on brevity to the class, he leaned forward over his desk,
grasped his coat lapels in his hands, and, in a husky,
conspiratorial voice, said,  Rule Seventeen. Omit needless
words! Omit needless words! Omit needless words!
He was a memorable man, friendly and funny. Under the
remembered sting of his kindly lash, I have been trying to
omit needless words since 1919, and although there are still
many words that cry for omission and the huge task will
never be accomplished, it is exciting to me to reread the
masterly Strunkian elaboration of this noble theme. It goes:
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no
unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for
the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary
lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not
that the writer make all sentences short or avoid all detail and
treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.
There you have a short, valuable essay on the nature and
beauty of brevity fifty-nine words that could change the
world. Having recovered from his adventure in prolixity (fifty-
nine words were a lot of words in the tight world of William
Strunk Jr.), the professor proceeds to give a few quick lessons
in pruning. Students learn to cut the deadwood from  this is a
subject that, reducing it to  this subject, a saving of three
words. They learn to trim  used for fuel purposes down to
 used for fuel. They learn that they are being chatterboxes
when they say  the question as to whether and that they
should just say  whether  a saving of four words out of a
possible five.
The professor devotes a special paragraph to the vile
expression the fact that, a phrase that causes him to quiver
with revulsion. The expression, he says, should be  revised
out of every sentence in which it occurs. But a shadow of
gloom seems to hang over the page, and you feel that he
knows how hopeless his cause is. I suppose I have written
the fact that a thousand times in the heat of composition,
revised it out maybe five hundred times in the cool
aftermath. To be batting only .500 this late in the season, to
fail half the time to connect with this fat pitch, saddens me,
for it seems a betrayal of the man who showed me how to
swing at it and made the swinging seem worthwhile.
I treasure The Elements of Style for its sharp advice, but I
treasure it even more for the audacity and self-confidence
of its author. Will knew where he stood. He was so sure of
where he stood, and made his position so clear and so
plausible, that his peculiar stance has continued to
invigorate me and, I am sure, thousands of other ex-
students during the years that have intervened since our
first encounter. He had a number of likes and dislikes that
were almost as whimsical as the choice of a necktie, yet he
made them seem utterly convincing. He disliked the word
forceful and advised us to use forcible instead. He felt that
the word clever was greatly overused:  It is best restricted
to ingenuity displayed in small matters. He despised the
expression student body, which he termed gruesome, and
made a special trip downtown to the Alumni News office
one day to protest the expression and suggest that studentry
be substituted a coinage of his own, which he felt was
similar to citizenry. I am told that the News editor was so
charmed by the visit, if not by the word, that he ordered the
student body buried, never to rise again. Studentry has
taken its place. It s not much of an improvement, but it does
sound less cadaverous, and it made Will Strunk quite
happy.
Some years ago, when the heir to the throne of England
was a child, I noticed a headline in the Times about Bonnie
Prince Charlie:  CHARLES TONSILS OUT. Immediately
Rule 1 leapt to mind.
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding  s.
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,
Charles s friend
Burns s poems
the witch s malice
Clearly, Will Strunk had foreseen, as far back as 1918, the
dangerous tonsillectomy of a prince, in which the surgeon
removes the tonsils and the Times copy desk removes the
final s. He started his book with it. I commend Rule 1 to the
Times, and I trust that Charles s throat, not Charles throat,
is in fine shape today.
Style rules of this sort are, of course, somewhat a matter
of individual preference, and even the established rules of
grammar are open to challenge. Professor Strunk, although
one of the most inflexible and choosy of men, was quick to
acknowledge the fallacy of inflexibility and the danger of
doctrine.  It is an old observation, he wrote,  that the best
writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric. When
they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the
sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of
the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will
probably do best to follow the rules.
It is encouraging to see how perfectly a book, even a
dusty rule book, perpetuates and extends the spirit of a man.
Will Strunk loved the clear, the brief, the bold, and his
book is clear, brief, bold. Boldness is perhaps its chief
distinguishing mark. On page 26, explaining one of his
parallels, he says,  The lefthand version gives the
impression that the writer is undecided or timid, apparently
unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold
to it. And his original Rule 11 was  Make definite
assertions. That was Will all over. He scorned the vague,
the tame, the colorless, the irresolute. He felt it was worse
to be irresolute than to be wrong. I remember a day in class
when he leaned far forward, in his characteristic pose the
pose of a man about to impart a secret and croaked,  If
you don t know how to pronounce a word, say it loud! If
you don t know how to pronounce a word, say it loud!
This comical piece of advice struck me as sound at the
time, and I still respect it. Why compound ignorance with
inaudibility? Why run and hide?
All through The Elements of Style one finds evidences of
the author s deep sympathy for the reader. Will felt that the
reader was in serious trouble most of the time, floundering
in a swamp, and that it was the duty of anyone attempting to
write English to drain this swamp quickly and get the reader
up on dry ground, or at least to throw a rope. In revising the
text, I have tried to hold steadily in mind this belief of his,
this concern for the bewildered reader.
In the English classes of today,  the little book is
surrounded by longer, lower textbooks books with
permissive steering and automatic transitions. Perhaps the
book has become something of a curiosity. To me, it still
seems to maintain its original poise, standing, in a drafty
time, erect, resolute, and assured. I still find the Strunkian
wisdom a comfort, the Strunkian humor a delight, and the
Strunkian attitude toward right-and-wrong a blessing
undisguised.