THE COGNITIVE METHOD

popular in the 1970s; based on The Cognitive Code Learning Theory. Also referred to as `a modernized Grammar Translation Approach'(Dakowska, 2005:56). 'Many, ... teaching specialists ..., were convinced that the new school in linguistics must lead to new teaching ideology and techniques.'(Dakowska, 2005:56)

I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1. SOURCE DISCIPLINES.

cognitive psychology

The 1960s

• reaction to behavioural psychology and continuation of Gestalt psychology

• highly constructive perception as opposed to passive one (the 1930-1940s)

• mentalistic theories cognition

• 'the activity of knowing: the acquisition, organisation, and use of knowledge... '(Neisser in Dakowska, 2005:53)

• the learner is active (initiates action)

• 'According to Manis (1971), cognitive processes refer to man's deliberate, planned intellectual processes which guide behaviour and embrace learning, reasoning, symbolic processes including language, problem solving, and individual strategies.'(Dakowska, 2005:53)

Main representatives:

David Ausubel

• theory of meaningful learning

• interaction - the mutual influence of the learning organism and its environment (knowledge from the environment processed in the mind)

'The learner is a subject capable of initiating action, whereas learning is seen as a highly constructive process.'(Dakowska, 2005:53)

• Language is unique

• The importance of existing knowledge

• cognitive structure -'hierarchical organization of our mental representations'(Dakowska, 2005:54) - to be able to learn successfully one has to be able to 'link the new information to the relevant position in the cognitive structure'(Dakowska, 2005:54)

• Reception (the learning material presented with no gaps) vs. discovery learning

• Rote Learning (mechanical, no links) vs. meaningful learning

meaningful learning (3 conditions for it to take place):

1. the meaningful learning set (expecting. looking for 'logical links and organisation' in the learning material(Dakowska, 2005:54)

2. potentially meaningful learning material (logical organisation of the material which should contain sensible ideas)

3. the logical meaning must become psychological the L must understand the meaning, fit it in his cognitive structure 'so that the objective meaning is converted into psychological meaning, as subjectively experienced by the learner.'(Dakowska, 2005:54)

the advantages of meaningful learning:

• the information remembered longer

• the information is easier and quicker retrieved

• boosts 'the development of the learner's cognitive structure' - the acquisition skills improved

Jerome S Bruner (and George Miller)

• founders of the Centre for Cognitive Studies (Harward University)

• research on mental processes

• The role of culture (stimulates the cognitive growth) and schooling promotes intellectual skills)

• Cognitive processes are constructive in nature (inferencing, categorising)

• The importance of schemata

2. GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS (Transformational Generative Grammar(TGG))

Noam Chomsky

• (criticism of behaviourism and structuralism)

• the importance of syntax;

• competence vs. performance;

• D- and S- structures,

• native speakers possess innate linguistic knowledge (the rationalist view as opposed to empiricist view) which is creative in nature and rule-governed, creativity, hypothesis testing

II FIVE SLOGANS/TENETS OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

1. A living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity

• '...infinite number of possible sentences is not stored in the mind of the speaker, but can be produced andunderstood with the help of a rather small number of grammatical rules. 'Dakowska, 2005:57).

• The importance of rules - 'learning the rules must facilitate language use 'Dakowska, 2005:57) explicit grammar teaching, deductive way.

• Translation (both ways) allowed again.

• The rules of grammar are psychologically real

• linguistic description of rules ≠ explicit knowledge of the speaker;

• being able to apply the rule functionally in communication is not the same as being able to explain the rule.

• Practice is crucial in this respect.

• 'The user of a given language gives evidence of knowing the rules of the language by applying them automatically.' `.. .it becomes automatic through use.'(Stern, 1997:471). Although they are applied automatically they are not learnt this way.

• Man is especially equipped to learn languages

• = universal.

• but learning a language is not limited to children only.

• A living language is a language in which we can think.

• To know the lg means to able to think in that lg.

• It may be only achieved through meaningful practice, not by mechanical drills.

• Language share underlying similarities

• = linguistic universals.

• The differences should be stressed and explained.

III CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE COGNITIVE METHOD

6. Aims

1. to acquire a language competence which helps to create(and understand) infinite number of correct sentences by means of finite set of rules.

2. to acquire a language 'as a coherent and meaningful system, a kind of consciously acquired
   "competence" which the learner can then put to use in real-life situation.'(Stem,1997:470)

7. Syllabus

1. grammatical syllabus (grammatical forms presented by meaningful materials with content which is cognitively stimulating).

2. language skills present.

8. The role of the T/Ss:

1. The role of the T

• the T is someone who is responsible for organising the material and presenting it in such a way that it becomes meaningful to the learner

2. The view of the learner

• Ss are active contributors in the learning/teaching process in the centre of attention/learning.

• Learner-centeredness/an active role of the learner.

• 'It is an activity of the learner, not something that is "just impressed upon us from the outside.' (Stern,1997:471)

9. The view ofl earning (study and analysis)

1. mental activity consisting in `.. the perception, acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge in such a way that it becomes an active part of the individual's cognitive Structure.'(Dakowska, 2005:59) '... conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system...' (Stern,1997:469)

2. Personalization - the content presented to the learner has to be personalized.

3. the importance of meaningful practice as opposed to memorising, repetition and drills (it leads to automatic application of rules)

4. practise could be also silent (mental process) - e.g. silent reading

5. learning - a constructive process.

• 'Teaching should start where the learner is'.

• The - prior -knowledge the learner possesses is significantly important.

• The teacher should take it into consideration when teaching.

• '... teaching must be adjusted to learning.'

• '... the trend to individualizing foreign language instruction.'(Dakbwska, 2005:59)

`...Learning is the perception, acquisition, organisation, and storage of knowledge in such a way that it becomes an active part of the individual's cognitive structure' (Chastain in Dakowska,2005;59).

5. Foreign language skills

• integrated skill approach

• balance between four skills.

• in the beginning the receptive skills are put more attention to

6. The treatment of grammar.

1. advance organizers (anticipatory schemata)

• before a grammar point is introduced, the Ss are provided with some information which can help them to fit the new material in the existing schemata (e.g. metalanguage)

• It should serve as a bridge between what Ss already know and what they are going to learn.

• `..to build a link between the grammatical material to be learned in the subsequent lessons and the current state of the learner's cognitive structure.'(Dakowska, 2005:61).

1. taught deductively as well as inductively

7. The treatment of error.

• making errors a part of learning (with challenging , problem Solving tasks there is a risk of errors)

• the error may suggest that the learner processes the info him/herself (internal developmental processes involved - interlanguage).

• It may lead to error analysis, remedial work.

• errors are no longer viewed as negative transfer only (mother tongue interference) but as a result of developmental processes.

8. Interaction in the classroom

The stress put on individual not choral activities

1. Ss(Ind.) - e.g. silent reading

2. T-S(s) / S(s)-T - e.g. question and answer exchanges

3. S-Ss - e.g. discussions, debates

9. The role of the native language.

• allowed in grammar presentation (especially in crosslinguistic comparisons

• and vocabulary explanation

• some translation allowed as well

10. The way language and culture is viewed.

1. Language

• a system of rules.

• Chomsky stressed especially syntactic rules and the role of their knowledge in creating infinite number of utterances (creativity)

1. culture

• 'stimulates the cognitive growth of an individual'(according to Bruner)

11. Techniques.

1. grammar presentation (both deductive & inductive; LI was allowed)

2. crosslinguistic comparisons

3. grammar exercises with rationalization of choices (Ss have to justify the choice of forms)

4. transformation exercise

5. problem solving activities

6. silent reading

7. learning new vocabulary with explicit analysis and definitions (in both lgs)

8. oral as well as written compositions(e.g. opinion paper for and against essay, argumentative writing)

9. discussions and debates

12. The research on the effectiveness of the Cognitive Method.

1. no significant differences between the students taught by the Audiolingual Method and
   the Cognitive Method (skills)

2. no significant differences in results between teaching grammar in an implicit and explicit
   way(age)

3. some type of info/material has to be learnt by heart

4. more suitable for advanced, mature learners

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