NOUNS
Case- only 2, Common Case & Saxon Genitive (with apostrophe)
Collective nouns- depends on the context, may connect with sing. or pl. form of V (eg. Team Countable C & Non-countable NC (only singular form)
are eating lunch & team has won the match)
Gender - masculine & feminine
Genitive marker- “apostrophe `s” indicates possession
Mass nouns- refer to invisible wholes, e.g. software
Proper nouns- name specific places & people, times & dates in calendar; usually zero article or sometimes “the”. Opposite- Common nouns
PRONOUNS (zaimki)
Demonstrative - this, that, these, those
Indefinite- prefix: any-, some-, no-, suffix: -one, -body, -thing
Interrogative (in questions)- who, what, why, where, when, whatever
Personal - refer to people (Subjective case: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they; Objective case: me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them)
Possessive - mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
Reciprocal - each other, one another
Reflexive - endings -self, -selves
Relative: that, which, whose, who, whom, where, when
NUMERALS - they are determiners when appear before noun - express quantity or sequence
Cardinal- nought, 5, two, a thousand
Ordinal- first, 2nd
DETERMINERS - never precede a pronoun!
Articles: definite (the), indefinite (a/an), zero
General Ordinals: last, latter, next, previous, subsequent
Other determiners: any, that, those, this, some, whatever, whichever, (quantity:) all, both, many, every, few, enough, no
Ordering of determiners:
Predeterminers: specify quantity on the noun which follows them, e.g. twice, double, half, all, both
Central: the, a, an, possessives: my, their, her, his, our; demonstratives this, these
Postdeterminers (they can co-occur): cardinal & ordinal numerals, general ordinals, other expressions: many, several, few
ADJECTIVES- describe attributes of nouns
Absolute form, Comparative f., Superlative f.
Attributive- occur before a noun,
Central- fulfill all these criteria: gradable, comparative and superlative form, occur attributively or predicatively, (without endings?)
Denominal adj: are derived from nouns, e.g. mathematical, wooden, German
Dynamic- denote attributes which are under control of the one who possesses them, can be used in imperatives & progressive constr., e.g. calm, friendly, patient, rude, suspicious, vain
Gradability- Gradable & Non-gradable (main, principal)
Inherent- adjective denotes an attribute or quality of a noun
Non-Inherent- metaphorical, refer less directly to the attribute of a noun: an old friend, distant relatives, a heavy smoker, complete idiot
Nominal adj.- share features of nouns and adjectives, denote a class by describing one of the attributes of the class (the old, the wealthy, the blind), nationalities: the French, the Japanese, other: the opposite, the good, Comp & Sup: the best, the elder
Participial adj.- adjectives with -ed or -ing ending, can be modified, used attr/pred. e.g. irritating, excited, talented; ADJECTICIVAL: Sb is terrified of losing job, disappointed to hear sth; VERBAL (Participles): Sb is terrified by his boss
Peripheral- do not fulfill all the criteria of central adjectives
Postpositive adj: adj which occur after a noun, e.g. institutional expressions: the Governor General, Princess Royal, times past; they may modify a pronoun: sth useful, everyone present; with superlatives (sometimes only): the shortest route possible
Predicative- occur after a noun, follow a verb
Stative- denote a state or condition, cannot be used in imperative or progressive constructions, e.g. big, red, small
Ordering of Adjectives:
1. AdjC (opinion) + AdjC (fact)
2. Central+ Colour+ Denominal
3. Central+ Participial+ Denominal
4. Non-gradable+ Central+ Colour+ Denominal
5. Comp/Superl+ ADJ
6. ADV (modifier)+ADJ+ ADJ …
VERBS
Agent- the one who performs an action in a sentence (in passive voice); Agentless Passive- eg. He was congratulated.
Aspect- how an event/action is to be viewed with respect to time:
1. Perfective aspect = perfective auxiliary (Sb has/had fallen in love)
2. Progressive aspect= progressive auxiliary (Sb is/was falling in love)
Concord- Agreement of subject & verb, correspondence between the pronoun or noun and the verb (I like, she likes)
Ellipsis- omission of a verb, e.g. Did you like it? Yes, I did.
Enclitic form = contraction, e.g. I've won!
Finite- verbs which have the past/present form
Nonfinite- verbs without tense (infinitive -ing, -ed)
Infinitive: To-Infinitive & Bare Infinitive
Inflections- endings -s or -ed, added to a Base form they provide a tense
Lexical verbs = main verbs, not auxiliaries
Participle forms: -ing participle form; -ed participle form (even without the ending -ed: known, bought, made) DO NOT CONFUSE WITH -ED INFLECTION!, preceded by auxiliary verb!
Tense- only present & past!
Voice- Active (aux may occur) & Passive (uses passive aux. be, main verb has -ed inflection),
Auxiliary verb- helping verbs, `helps' main verb which comes after it. Może być tylko 1 operator! Drugi czasownik posiłkowy = special auxiliary verb
Types:
1. Passive be: Sth is produced/was produced
2. Progressive be: Sb is writing/was writing sth
3. Perfective have: She has broken her leg
4. Modals (express permission, ability, obligation, prediction): You can have it, Paul will arrive late, I really should go
5. Dummy Do (in questions, negation, giving orders, emphasis): Do you like it? Do eat it!