Venerable Bede, “Dream of the Rood” and King Alfred - handout
St. Bede the Venerable
A representation of Bede working in his library. Notice the Holy Spirit (the dove) whispering
the words of divine inspiration into his ear.
Such representations of Church Fathers or early medieval authors were very common.
Bede was born in 672/673, possibly in Monkton or in Jarrow (the kingdom of Northumbria), died May 25, 735, Jarrow; canonized 1899; feast day May 25
Bede, also spelled Baeda or Beda, was an Anglo-Saxon theologian, historian, and chronologist, best known today for his Historia ecclesiastica gentisAnglorum (“Ecclesiastical History of the English People”), a source vital to the history of the conversion to Christianity of the Anglo-Saxon tribes. During his lifetime and throughout the Middle Ages Bede's reputation was based mainly on his scriptural commentaries (i.e. commentaries to the Old and New Testaments), copies of which found their way to many of the monastic libraries of western Europe. His method of dating events from the time of the incarnation, or Christ's birth—i.e.,
AD—came into general use through the popularity of the Historia ecclesiastica and the two works on chronology. Bede's influence was perpetuated at home through the school founded at York by his pupil Archbishop Egbert of York and was transmitted to the Continent by Alcuin, who studied there before becoming master of Charlemagne's palace school at Aachen (Polish: Akwizgran).
Nothing is known of Bede's parentage. At the age of seven he was taken to the Monastery of St. Peter, founded at Wearmouth (near Sunderland, Durham) by Abbot St. Benedict Biscop, to whose care he was entrusted. By 685 he was moved to Biscop's newer Monastery of St.Paul at Jarrow. Bede was ordained deacon when 19 years old and priest when 30. Apart from visits to Lindisfarne and York, he seems never to have left Wearmouth-Jarrow. Buried at Jarrow, his
remains were removed to Durham and are now entombed in the Galilee Chapel of Durham Cathedral.
Bede's works fall into three groups: grammatical and “scientific,” scriptural commentary, and historical and
biographical. His earliest works include treatises on spelling, hymns, figures of speech, verse, and epigrams. His first treatise on chronology, De temporibus (“On Times”), with a brief chronicle attached, was written in 703. In 725 he completed a greatly amplified version, De temporum ratione (“On the Reckoning of Time”), with a much longer chronicle. Both these books were mainly concerned with the reckoning of Easter. His earliest biblical commentary was probably that on the Revelation to John (703?-709); in this and many similar works, his aim was to transmit and explain relevant passages from the Fathers of the Church. Although his interpretations were mainly allegorical, treating much of the biblical text as symbolic of deeper meanings, he used some critical judgment and attempted to rationalize discrepancies. Among his most notable are his verse (705-716) and prose (before 721) lives of St. Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfarne. These works are uncritical and abound with accounts of miracles; a more exclusively historical work is Historia abbatum (c. 725; “Lives of the Abbots”).
In 731/732 Bede completed his Historia ecclesiastica. Divided into five books, it recorded events in Britain from the raids by Julius Caesar (55-54 BC) to the arrival in Kent (AD 597) of St. Augustine. For his sources he claimed the authority of ancient letters, the “traditions of our forefathers,” and his own knowledge of contemporary events. Bede's Historia ecclesiastica leaves gaps tantalizing to secular historians. Although overloaded with the miraculous, it is the work of a scholar anxious to assess the accuracy of his sources and to record only what he regarded as trustworthy evidence. It remains an indispensable source for some of the facts and much of the feel of early Anglo-Saxon history. It is interesting to note that King Alfred the Great of Wessex recognized the importance of Historia ecclesiastica for creating a sense of national awareness and designated it as one of “the books that were most necessary for all men to know”.
Adapted from Encyclopaedia Britannica
Red the following two fragments from Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica:
1. About the supposed origins of re-instating Christianity in Anglo-Saxon Britain and also about how history is
mythicized (Book II, Chapter 1, emphasis mine):
Nor is the account of St. Gregory, which has been handed down to us by the tradition of our ancestors, to be passed by in silence, in relation to his motives for taking such interest in the salvation of our nation. It is reported, that some merchants, having just arrived at Rome on a certain day, exposed many things for sale in the marketplace, and abundance of people resorted thither to buy: Gregory himself went with the rest, and, among other things, some boys were set to sale, their bodies white, their countenances beautiful, and their hair very fine. Having viewed them, he asked, as is said, from what country or nation they were brought? and was told, from the island of Britain, whose inhabitants were of such personal appearance. He again inquired whether those islanders were Christians, or still involved in the errors of paganism? and was informed that they were pagans. Then fetching a deep sigh from the bottom of his heart, "Alas! what pity," said he, "that the author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair countenances; and that being remarkable for such graceful aspects, their minds
should be void of inward grace." He therefore again asked, what was the name of that nation? and was answered, that they were called Angles. "Right," said he, for they have an Angelic face, and it becomes such to be co-heirs with the Angels in heaven. What is the name," proceeded he, "of the province from which they are brought?" It was replied, that the natives of that province were called Deiri. "Truly are they De ira," said he, "withdrawn from wrath, and called to the mercy of Christ. How is the king of that province called?" They told him his name was Ælla: and he, alluding to the name said, "Hallelujah, the praise of God the Creator must be sung in those parts."
2. Caedmon's Hymn - the earliest recorded Old English poem (670 A.D., according to Bede), translated from Old English into Latin by Bede, but rendered below in its West-Saxon form (the times of King Alfred):
Now we must praise heaven-kingdom's Guardian
The Measurer's might and his mind-plans,
The work of the Glory-Father, when he of wonders of every one,
Eternal Lord, the beginning established [i.e. the beginning of every wonder]
He first created for men's sons
Heaven as a roof, holy Creator;
Then middle-earth mankind's Guardian,
Eternal Lord afterwards made
For men earth, Master almighty.
RIGHT: Anglo-Saxon Britain, ca. 800 AD. Notice the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms: Northumbrian a Mercia still dominate, despite the initial
Viking attacks. A hundred years later the kingdom of Northumbria
will be greatly reduced, Mercia will be taken over by the Vikings and
Wessex will be growing in importance. It is from Alfred's Wessex
that England will later develop.
The Dream of the Rood
RIGHT: The so-called Ruthwell Cross (7-8th c.), made of stone and now housed in the Ruthwell parish church (Southern Scotland, formerly kingdom of Northumbria). The cross displays texts written in runic alphabet, which are surprisingly similar to the text of the poem “The Dream of theRood”. The poem itself was found in a manuscript (now called the Vercelli Book) which was found in the town of Vercelli (northern Italy).
All this clearly shows intercultural connections within early medieval Europe, not only between early Christianity and remains of earlier beliefs (the stone cross), but also between kingdoms, monasteries and church hierarchies of various European countries then.
For more information and the images of the stone cross, bearing the runic inscription with what appears to be a version of the poem please see: http://www.flsouthern.edu/Academics/eng/abruce/rood/home.htm
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, 849-899.
The statue of King Alfred in Winchester (notice the sword / cross), erected in 1899 to
commemorate
the millennium from Alfred's death. The city of Winchester was a chief city of Alfredian Wessex.
Wessex was a Saxon kingdom in southwestern England, ruled by Alfred who prevented England from falling to the Danes (Vikings) and promoted learning and literacy. Compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began during his reign, c. 890.
When he was born, it must have seemed unlikely that Alfred would become king, since he had four older brothers; he said that he never desired royal power. Perhaps a scholar's life would have contented him. His mother early aroused his interest in English poetry, and from his boyhood he also hankered after Latin learning, possibly stimulated by visits to Rome in 853 and 855. It is possible also that he was aware of and admired the great Frankish king Charlemagne, who had at the beginning of the century revived learning in his realm. Alfred had no opportunity to acquire the education he sought, however, until much later in life.
Alfred's military career.
He probably received the education in military arts normal for a young man of rank. He first appeared on active service in 868, when he and his brother, King Aethelred (Ethelred) I, went to help Burgred of Mercia (the kingdom between the Thames and the Humber) against a great Danish army that had landed in East Anglia in 865 and taken possession of Northumbria in 867. The Danes refused to give battle, and peace was made. In this year Alfred married Ealhswith, descended through her mother from Mercian kings. Late in 871, the Danes invaded Wessex, and Aethelred and Alfred fought several battles with them. Aethelred died in 871 and Alfred succeeded him. After an unsuccessful battle at Wilton he made peace. It was probably the quality of the West Saxon resistance that discouraged Danish attacks for five years.
In 876 the Danes again advanced on Wessex: they retired in 877 having accomplished little, but a surprise attack in January 878 came near to success. The Danes established themselves at Chippenham, and the West Saxons submitted “except King Alfred.” He harassed the Danes from a fort in the Somerset marshes, and until seven weeks after Easter he secretly assembled an army, which defeated them at the Battle of Edington. They surrendered, and their king, Guthrum, was baptized, Alfred standing as sponsor; the following year they settled in East Anglia.
Wessex was never again in such danger. Alfred had a respite from fighting until 885, when he repelled an invasion of Kent by a Danish army, supported by the East Anglian Danes. In 886 he took the offensive and captured London, a success that brought all the English not under Danish rule to accept him as king. The possession of London also made possible the reconquest of the Danish territories in his son's reign, and Alfred may have been preparing for this, though he could make no further advance himself. He had to meet a serious attack by a large Danish force from the European continent in 892, and it was not until 896 that it gave up the struggle.
The failure of the Danes to make any more advances against Alfred was largely a result of the defensive measures he undertook during the war. Old forts were strengthened and new ones built at strategic sites, and arrangements were made for their continual manning. Alfred reorganized his army and used ships against the invaders as early as 875. Later he had larger ships built to his own design for use against the coastal raids that continued even after 896. Wise diplomacy also helped Alfred's defense. He maintained friendly relations with Mercia and Wales; Welsh rulers sought his support and supplied some troops for his army in 893.
Government and the laws.
Alfred succeeded in government as well as at war. He was a wise administrator, organizing his finances and the service due from his thanes (noble followers). He scrutinized the administration of justice and took steps to ensure the protection of the weak from oppression by ignorant or corrupt judges. He promulgated an important code of laws, after studying the principles of lawgiving in the Book of Exodus and the codes of Aethelbert of Kent, Ine of Wessex (688-694), and Offa of Mercia (757-796), again with special attention to the protection of the weak and dependent. While avoiding unnecessary changes in custom, he limited the practice of the blood feud and imposed heavy penalties for breach of oath or pledge.
Alfred and the promotion of learning.
Alfred is most exceptional, however, not for his generalship or his administration but for his attitude toward learning. He shared the contemporary view that Viking raids were a divine punishment for the people's sins, and he attributed these to the decline of learning, for only through learning could men acquire wisdom and live in accordance with God's will. Hence, in the lull from attack between 878 and 885, he invited scholars to his court from Mercia, Wales, and the European continent. He learned Latin himself and began to translate Latin books into English in 887. He directed that all young freemen of adequate means must learn to read English, and, by his own translations and those of his helpers, he made available English versions of “those books most necessary for all men to know,” books that would lead them to wisdom and virtue. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, by the English historian Bede, and the Seven Books of Histories Against the Pagans, by Paulus Orosius, a 5th-century theologian—neither of which was translated by Alfred himself, though they have been credited to him—revealed the divine purpose in history. Alfred's translation of the Pastoral Care of St. Gregory I, the great 6th-century pope, provided a manual for priests in the instruction of their flocks, and a translation by Bishop Werferth of Gregory's Dialogues supplied edifying reading on holy men. Alfred's rendering of the Soliloquies of the 5th-century theologian St. Augustine of Hippo, to which he added material from other works of the Fathers of the Church, discussed problems concerning faith and reason and the nature of eternal life. This translation deserves to be studied in its own right, as does his rendering of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. In considering what is true happiness and the relation of providence to faith and of predestination to free
will, Alfred does not fully accept Boethius' position but depends more on the early Fathers. In both works, additions include parallels from contemporary conditions, sometimes revealing his views on the social order and the duties of kingship. Alfred wrote for the benefit of his people, but he was also deeply interested in theological problems for their own sake and commissioned the first of the translations, Gregory's Dialogues, “that in the midst of earthly troubles he might sometimes think of heavenly things.” He may also have done a translation of the first 50 psalms. Though not Alfred's work, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, one of the greatest sources of information about Saxon England, which began to be circulated about 890, may have its origin in the intellectual interests awakened by the revival of learning under him. His reign also saw activity in building and in art, and foreign craftsmen were attracted to his court.
In one of his endeavours, however, Alfred had little success; he tried to revive monasticism, founding a monastery and a nunnery, but there was little enthusiasm in England for the monastic life until after the revivals on the European continent in the next century.
Alfred, alone of Anglo-Saxon kings, inspired a full-length biography, written in 893, by the Welsh scholar Asser. This work contains much valuable information, and it reveals that Alfred laboured throughout under the burden of recurrent, painful illness; and beneath Asser's rhetoric can be seen a man of attractive character, full of compassion, able to inspire affection, and intensely conscious of the responsibilities of kingly office. This picture is confirmed by Alfred's laws and writings.
Alfred was never forgotten: his memory lived on through the Middle Ages and in legend as that of a king who won victory in apparently hopeless circumstances and as a wise lawgiver. Some of his works were copied as late as the 12th century. Modern studies have increased knowledge of him but have not altered in its essentials the medieval conception of a great king.
Adapted from Encyclopaedia Britannica
The class:
1. Think about possible reasons for the spread of Christianity in northern Europe - did it mean any practical benefits connected with governing a state? What could have those benefits been? Think of administration, education, cultural contacts and economic and cultural stability. Christianity (Christianitas) as a European Union of early medieval world?
2. In the first fragment of Bede's History, how does Christianity reach Northumbria? Why is a council held at court, discussing the pros and cons of accepting it? What is the role of the king and what could be his motifs? What about the high pagan priest, Coifi, and his motifs? And finally, what is the opinion of the nameless warrior and what is the purpose of the sparrow comparison? Can you think of relations to the heroic poetry we discussed?
3. In the second fragment, who was Caedmon before he turned poet and where does his gift come from? Does his social position matter for ideological reasons? Why did he become so important once the Abbess learnt about his skill? Is Caedmon a tool of God, a tool of the Abbess or both? Propaganda, ideology, belief or the mixture of all?
4. What is Caedmon's poem about and what is the tone of his poem? Why does he begin by praising the power of God, and not, for instance, by praising God's love to mankind?
5. The Dream of the Rood as a vision poem - vision in sleep (a dream-vision)? What could be its significance? Why sleep?
6. How is the Cross presented in the poem? The Cross as a narrator - what is its story? How different is it from the New Testament and how different is Christ here? Can you think of relations to the heroic poetry we discussed?
7. Find the fragments in the poem which you think are: visually attractive; present a different vision of Christ from what we are used to; present a vision of human life on earth and beyond in the poem; present the vision of Christ's return (Doomsday).