First language acquisition and its implications for language teaching
Similarities between L1 and L2 development
L1 acquisition: smooth, effective
L2 acquisition: more complicated, interfered with by L1 – interlanguage is developed; depends on various factors
Similarities/differences between L1 and L2 acquisition inform T`s choice of:
Syllabus
Classroom activities
Methods
They also help T understand:
The learning process
The guiding T needs to provide
Presence of developmental sequences
The silent period → development of the basic competence
Both first and second language learners pass through a similar initial stage, the silent period. Children acquiring their first language go through a period of listening to the language they are exposed to. During this period the child tries to discover what language is. In the case of second language acquisition, learners opt for a silent period when immediate production is not required from them. In general, however, many second language learners - especially classroom learners- are urged to speak. The fact that there is a silent period in both first and second language learners (when given the opportunity) is widely accepted.
However, there is disagreement on what contribution the silent period has in second language acquisition. While Krashen (1982) argues that it builds competence in the learner via listening, Gibbons (1985, cited in Ellis, 1994) argues that it is a stage of incomprehension.
Formulaic speech
Formulaic speech is defined as expressions which are learnt as unanalysable wholes and employed on particular occasions (Lyons, 1968, cited in Ellis, 1994). Krashen (1982) suggests that these expressions can have the form of routines (whole utterances learned as memorized chunks - e.g. I don't know.), patterns (partially unanalyzed utterances with one or more slots - e.g. Can I have a ____?), and Ellis (1994) suggests that these expressions can consist of entire scripts such as greetings.
Structural and semantic simplification
The first and second language learners apply structural and semantic simplifications to their language. Structural simplifications take the form of omitting grammatical functors (e.g. articles, auxiliary verbs) and semantic simplifications take the form of omitting content words (e. g. nouns, verbs). There are two suggested reasons why such simplifications occur. The first reason is that learners may not have yet acquired the necessary linguistic forms. The second reason is that they are unable to access linguistic forms during production.
Reading and writing→ artificial language skills
Listening and speaking → natural language skills
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| Ls pass through a silent period |
| It builds competence in the learner via listening (Krashen). It is a stage of incomprehension (Gibbons) |
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Reasons Ls may not have yet acquired linguistic forms Ls are unable to access linguistic forms during production |
Silent period
Allows for a silent period (it may be impossible to apply due to grading legislations – Ts ask Ss for premature production)
Understanding Ls` erroneous production (continuous errors), inhibitions ( a big influence of learner`s emotions, frustration, peer pressre, teachers comments and corrections) and anxiety (lower affective filter)
Formulaic speech
Teach samples of useful, frequently used phrases (Ss can use these in communication) – Total Physical Response – phrases, fixed expressions, routines, patterns should be introduced by a teacher
| The L`s choice of TL variety |
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When you learn the first language, you cannot decide what language you speak, you learn language from your parents |
Evidence of acquisition order
Acquisition sequences:
Understand imperfect language production of specific language items
Design the syllabus in congruence (odpowiedniość, zgodność) with acquisition order
| Acquisition order |
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| Ls acquire certain grammatical morphemes in a fixed order (Krashen) |
| Invariant (niezmienny) sequence of acquisition for at least 14 functors in English as L1 (noun/verb inflections, prepositions,and articles) (Brown) |
Acquisition orders for question words (what, where, who) show a great similarity in L1 and L2 acquisition (Lightbown and Spada)
Wells (1986b, in Ellis, 1994) proposes inter-learner variables affecting the order of acquisition as sex, intelligence, social background, rate of learning, and experience of linguistic interaction.
Furthermore, McLaughlin (1987) claims that evidence from research shows that the learner's first language has an effect on acquisitional sequences which either slows their development or modifies it. He adds that, considerable individual variation in how learners acquire a second language, such as different learning, performance, and communication strategies, obscure the acquisitional sequences for certain constructions.
Lightbown and Spada (2006) review studies which have proposed that the acquisition of question words (what, where, who, why, when, and how), show a great similarity in first and second language acquisition. Based on the morpheme studies in L2 acquisition, Krashen (1982) put forward the Natural Order Hypothesis which he developed to account for second language acquisition. He claimed that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order. This acquisition order is not determined by simplicity or the order of rules taught in the class. The above arguments show that there seems to exist an order of acquisition in both first and second language acquisition.
Impact of linguistic universals and markedness marked ->articles, question tags, Present Perfect
Identify the marked features of TL and spend more time on them
Understand Ss`failure to learn given features of L2
| Linguistic Universals |
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| Two schools: Typological universals/ Generative school |
| Typological universals: languages from different families have common features (nouns, verbs) |
| Universal grammar (language acquisition device): some universal principles of grammar underlie (być podstawą) and govern specific language rules |
| Markedness(marked/ unmarked rules) |
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Marked rules:
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Unmarked rules:
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Unmarked features learnt ealier/easier than marked rules in L1 and L2 acquisition Marked/peripheral aspects more difficult to learn (Ellis and McLaughlin) |
The findings show that unmarked features are learned earlier and easier than marked rules in both the first and the second language while unmarked forms require more time and effort by the learner.
Role of input (Krashen)
You are the main source of input in the classroom
Adjust your language to Ss` level
Speak at a speed that Ss can follow
Use pair work, information gap act, and discussion as a source of input
| Input |
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“language whicha learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn” (Richards) Behaviourist view: direct relationsheep between input and output. To develop language habits Ls must be given feedback which represents input (stimulus/response/habit formation) Interactionist view: verbal interaction or input, is crucial for language acquisition, input from TV/ radio is insufficient |
| Input Hypothesis (Krashen) |
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L1 learner receives simple, comprehensible input at the beginning With time input becomes more complicated Caretaker talk/motherize |
| Interactionist view: one-to-one interaction gives access to adjusted input |
Chomsky: input essential but cannot fully explain L1 acquisition -ungrammaticalities/disfluencies- inadequate source of language data (kids would not distinguish grammatical/ungrammatical forms) -poverty of the stimulus-input alone does not supply Ls with sufficient data |
| L1 learners must rely on Universal Grammar (innate knowledge) |
Krashen (1982) argues that the input a first language learner receives is simple and comprehensible at the beginning and is getting slightly more complicated. With this argument, he supports his next argument that input should be slightly above the level of the language learner. Only in doing so can the second language learner move forward. He argues that the second language learner should be exposed to the target language as much as possible and that the lack of comprehensible input will cause the language learner to be held up in his development (Ellis, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987).
The Interactionist Approach to first language acquisition holds that one to one interaction gives the child access to language which is adjusted to his or her level of comprehension, therefore, interaction is seen as crucial and impersonal sources of language (such as TV and radio) are seen as insufficient. Consequently, verbal interaction is seen to be crucial for language leaning since it helps to make the facts of the second language salient to the learner. Similarly, intersectional modifications which take place in the conversations between native and non-native speakers are seen as necessary to make input comprehensible for the second language learner (Lightbown & Spada, 2006; Ellis, 1994).
Role of stimulus/response learning behaviourist (learning is a habit formation)
Use stimulus/response for grammar/phonology
YLs might find drill enjoyable; OLs might become bored
Remember it may be more useful for Ss with lower levels of proficiency
For younger learners – it is very interesting
For older learners – this method is very mechanical ,they enjoy rules
| Behaviouristic View of Language Acquisition |
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| Conditioning and habit formation (Pavlov; Skinner) stimulus, response, reinforcement |
| Some regular/routine aspects of language might be learned through stimulus/response (determined by environment) |
| L1 and L2 learners from/repeat original sentences. Thus the B Approach fails…(niewidoczne na mojej kserówce) |
The similarity between L1 and L2 acquisition is seen in the Behavioristic Approach originally which tries to explain learning in general. The famous psychologist Pavlov tried to explain learning in terms of conditioning and habit formation. Following Pavlov, B. F. Skinner tried to explain language learning in terms of operant conditioning. This view sees language as a behavior to be taught. A small part of the foreign language acts as a stimulus to which the learner responds (e.g. by repetition). When the learner is 100 % successful, the teacher reinforces by praise or approval.
Consequently, the likelihood of the behavior is increased. However, if the learner responds inappropriately then the behavior is punished and the likelihood of this behavior to occur is decreased (Brown, 1994). In other words, children imitate a piece of language they hear and if they receive positive reinforcement they continue to imitate and practice that piece of language which then turns into a 'habit' (Williams & Burden, 1997).
However, L1 and L2 learners form and repeat sentences they have not heard of before. Therefore, this approach fails to account for the creative language use of L1 and L2 learners.
Impact of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)
Try to:
Assist Ss (providing with language necessary to progress) the use of formulaic speech
Direct activities in a manner appropriate to Ss` level of development, cultural and social environment (Daniels) here and now with the children refer to the pictures, toys, things that are near
Promote T-S/peer-interaction (collaborative tasks) peer teaching, peer correction
| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) |
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Children lean faster and easier when adults help them |
We can say that zone of proximal development is shared in first and second language acquisition; for example ,when children come across a problem they cannot solve themselves they turn to others for help. Thus, collaboration with another person is important for a child to learn. Otherwise, development would not be possible. Learning collaboratively with others precedes and shapes development. A good example for this process is said to be the development of literacy (Gallaway & Richards, 1994; Lantolf & Thorne, 2007).
Vygotsky (1982, cited in Daniels, 1996) asserts that through using language children take part in the intellectual life of the community. In order to negotiate meaning, collaboration between the child and the members of the community is required. Considering language education, instruction creates the zone of proximal development, stimulating a series of inner developmental processes (Daniels, 1996; Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). According to the ZPD, assistant performance and collaboration are crucial for learning and development. The teacher’s assistance and students’ collaboration with their teacher and their peers is inevitable for L2 development. The teacher’s most important classroom work “is to provide for the social interaction within the community of learners such that the learners may move from what they know to what they don’t yet know” (Hawkins, 2001, p. 375).
Differences between L1 and L2 development
Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Give extensive practice (might lead to acquisition)
Have realistic expectations about quality of learning
Acquired knowledge –intuitive, full competence
Learned knowledge – gaps, a lot of effort, fail in competence
| The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis |
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| Children acquire, absorb subconsciously, informally |
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The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis - is the most important of aspect of his theory of second language acquisition According to Krashen, there are two independent ways of developing our linguistic skills ACQUISITION and LEARNING. Acquisition involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge where information is stored in the brain through the use of communication; this is the process used for developing native languages. The learner is unaware of the process taking place. Once the new knowledge has been acquired, the learner is actually unaware of possessing such knowledge.
This is analogous to the way in which children learn their native language Learning, on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of knowledge ‘about’ a language (i.e. the grammar or form). Learning a language involves formal instruction and is therefore a conscious process. New language forms are represented and possibly contrasted consciously by the learner as "rules" and "grammar". These "rules" - while known by the student - may well nave no actual impact on the language produced by the student. Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language instruction. A good example would be the third person "s" - a structure "learnt" in the first few weeks of any English course but frequently not "acquired" until very much later.
The Monitor hypothesis
This hypothesis further explains how acquisition and learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an utterance and the learning system ‘monitors’ the utterance to inspect and correct errors. Krashen states that monitoring can make some contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use should be limited. He suggests that the ‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow down and focus more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.
The Critical Period Hypothesis
Children are better at pronunciation
Adults are faster/better at learning rules and pragmatics
| The Critical Period Hypothesis |
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“a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire” (Brown)
Neurological factors: brain lateralization Left hemisphere: language, logical, analytical operations and higher mathematics Right hemisphere: recognizing emotions, faces and global understanding (Steinberg) |
| The plasticity of the brain before puberty enables L1 and L2 acquisition |
Critical period hypothesis, as suggested by Lenneberg (1967), indicates that language acquisition should take place during a critical period ending at about the age of puberty. In other words, it refers to a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired. Lennenberg (1967) proposed his theory of critical period in which he argued that in order to have proper language fluency, language should be acquired or learned before the onset of puberty. However, he left out the point that whether this applies only to the first language acquisition or extend up to the second language acquisition as well. Lennenberg suggested two parts; firstly, normal language learning occurs within childhood. Secondly, reaching the adult age by puberty, brain loses its plasticity and reorganizational capacities necessary for language acquisition. Long (1990) puts the critical age at 6 years, but Scovel argues that there is no evidence to support this and argues for a pre-puberty start. Initially, the notion of a critical period was connected only to first language acquisition. The argument is that children are superior to adults in learning second languages because their brains are more flexible (Lenneberg, 1967; Penfield & Roberts, 1959). They can learn languages easily because their cortex is more plastic than that of
older learners. But this model was extended to be employed with regard to SLA. With regard to SLA, the classic argument is that a critical point for SLA occurs around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a native like accent of the second language. This has led some to assume, incorrectly, that by the age of 12 or 13 you are over the hill when it comes to the possibility of successful second language learning.
Fossilization
L2 forms might be fossilized
Correct repeated errors
Focus on problematic language
| Fossilization |
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Non-targer norms become (part of competence) fixed in interlanguage Factors:
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| Absent from L1 acquisition |
Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected.
Language fossilization refers to the process in the learning of a secondary language in which the student has more and more difficulty furthering his fluency in the language, until eventually, the student can learn no more. The language, for all intents and purposes, has been set in stone in the mind of the learner at this last point. Some potential for learning small superficial aspects of the language might still exist, such as vocabulary, but conceptual understanding of the material will not develop any further. Fossilization, thus, is a sort of stagnation in secondary language acquisition that cannot be overcome. Fossilization most often occurs in an inadequate learning environment. This usually means learning a language in a classroom, as opposed to learning it in the country where it is natively spoken. Many aspects of a language simply cannot be taught in a classroom, where one generally learns a highly academic version of the tongue, as opposed to the colloquial language Fossilization often means that certain aspects of the language were learned incompletely or incorrectly, such as grammatical features like conjugating verbs in the wrong fashion or using the wrong vocabulary, in such a manner that they cannot be unlearned and replaced with correct usage. Fossilization may also consist of a sort of subconscious clinging to aspects of the learner's mother tongue, for instance, with syntax and phonology. This may reflect an inability to similarly “unlearn” characteristics of a mother language for the purpose of learning another; the native language so deeply hardwired into the brain that its paradigms cannot be replaced when attempting to learn a new and foreign language.
Social Factors
You (or school) are responsible for choosing TL variety to take as the norm
Make Ss aware of the different L2 varieties
Be consistent in teaching a given language variety
| Social Factors |
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Natural Contexts:
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| L1 acquisition takes place only in a natural context in the social group |
| Psychomotor factors: Starting from birth, speech muscles gradually develop until 5-6. Then, intil puberty they maintain flexibility |
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| Children`s speech muscles permit them to easily acquire native-like pronunciation in L1/L2 |
Acculturation requires social and psychological adaptation
Acculturation is determined by the degree of social and psychological “distance” between L and C2
The greater contact with L2 speakers and culture, the more acquisition occurs
Affective factors:
L2 learners are influenced by inhibitions/attitudes
Ls need to be relaxed/comfortable to have positive attitudes to L2 learning
Free Ss from inhibitions (trust and understanding)
| Affective factors |
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| Children have not yet developed affect |
| Children develop a sense of self-identity towards puberty (need to protect self-identity and develop inhibitions) |
| Children no language ego (it`s flexible, dynamic but as the child reaches puberty the language ego becomes protective) |
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| Children `s affective filter is low |
The development of cognition in adult comes along with some affective obstacles on the way of learning a second language. One of them is inhibition. A child is highly egocentric but as he grows up, he becomes more and more aware of himself and develops a more solid self-identity and after the age of puberty he tries to protect this identity_ (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). In the case of language, he develops a language ego with reference to the language he learns (Brown, 1994). The point here is that learning a new language for an adult means adopting a new ego along with an existing one related to the mother tongue (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). This feeling of clinging to the first ego causes an inhibition on the way of learning the second language (Moinzadeh, Dezhara, & Rezaei, 2012). On the other hand, children are naturally egocentric. While learning their language they are not afraid to make mistakes, and in general, they do not feel abashed when they
are corrected (Tucker, 2003). Also, their thoughts usually do not surpass their language ability. Adults, on the other hand, usually suffer form a fairly large amount of language learning anxiety (Tucker, 2003). Adults often feel frustrated or threatened in the struggle of learning a different language (Hadley, 2002). Another factor which is also much affected by emotional change is motivation. As Tucker (2003) suggests a child's motivation is simple. In order to communicate and to be a part of family and society the child must master the target language. This motivation is quite weighty, especially when compared to the motivation that adults have, or rather, must find (Tucker, 2003). In second language acquisition studies, a large part of the variation between learners is due to motivation (Ervin-Tripp, 2001). The most obvious mechanism for motivation to have such effects is via self-imposed increase in exposure to target language. Adult motivations usually fall into one of two categories: integrative motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire the new language in order to become closer to and/or identify themselves with the speakers of the target language) or instrumental motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire proficiency for such practical purposes as becoming a translator, doing further research, and aiming for promotion in their career) (Hadley, 2002). Either one of these types of motivation must be prevalent for successful acquisition to take place (Tucker, 2003). Another affective factor causing difficulty for the learners is attitude. There is now a body of research (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, Smythe, Kirby, & Bramwell, 1974) showing that attitudes correlate with success in language class. The research also supports the claim that the type of attitude has an effect (i.e., instrumental or utilitarian attitude) which is not as good as an integrative one. Since young children are not yet cognitively developed to raise a solid attitude toward a certain races, cultures, ethnic groups, and languages, the attitude is established when the child grows up and if it is positive, it can enhance the process of second language learning and vice versa (Ellis, 1994). Affective variables can act as a mental block (i.e., affective filter) and can prevent comprehensible input to be absorbed. When the learner is unmotivated and lacks confidence, the affective filter goes up. When the learner is not anxious and wants to be a member of the group speaking the target language, the filter goes down (Du, 2009). McLaughlin (1987) argues that children are at an advantage when learning a first or second language because their affective filter is low while adults are likely to have a higher affective filter due to events that occurred in adolescence.
Implications of the above for EFL instruction
http://www.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/best%20of%20bilash/krashen.html