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b)    antonymy is a term describing a variety of different forms of ’oppositeness’ which are relevant; e.g. husband/wife, big/small, (for different types of antonyms see: Gaims and Redman, 1983, pp.24-28);

c)    hyponymy deals with the relationship of inclusion, organises words into taxonomies or hierarchical tree-type diagrams:

ANIMAL

pig horse cow dog cat lion etc.

Analysing the above-presented diagram, words such as ‘cat’, ‘dog’ are the hyponyms of ‘animal’, while ‘animal’ is the superordinate term; words such as ‘cat’, ‘dog’ which are on the same level in the taxonomy are called co-hyponyms.

11.3.2.3. Affective meaning

a) connotation - refers to the way a vocabulary item reflects speaker’s attitude or emotions; e.g. “Joanna is a single woman” differs from “Joanna is a spin ster”. If one is to look at the lexical items from the point of view of the learner, then three main areas of connotation may be identified:

—    intrinsic connotation - certain items intrinsically have a positive or negative connotation; e.g. naive,

—    speaker’s attitude - the understanding of the same item or expression used by different speakers or by the same speaker in different contexts may vary substantially; e.g. publicity, popular, liberał, etc.,

—    socio-cultural associations - there is a whole array of associations with certain items that native speakers possess and these are shared by the entire society; e.g. Friday the 13th, etc.,

What this implies is that it is essential for words to beźj encountered in context for their connotation to become elear to learners, hence it may also be useful to contrast words with the LI in terms of connotations.

11.3.2.4. Style, register and dialect

Style describes the level of formality (slang, colloąuial, informal, neutral, formal, frozen) as well as styles such as humorous, ironie, poetic, literary, etc that are used in language;

Register is a variety of language defined by the topie and context of use, for example the language of medicine, education, law, computers, etc.,

Dialect refers to the differences in not only geographical variation (e.g. American English, Scottish English, etc.,) but, additionally, includes variation according to social class a speaker belongs to.

11.3.2.5. Collocation

Collocation is the organisation of lexical items according to words which go with each other; when two items co-occur, or are used together frequently, they are said to collocate; e.g. headache, stomachache, but not *throatache, or *legache, etc.

11.3.3. Word-building processes

Words can change the form and grammatical value so that they can be used as a different part of speech. Students need to be presented with and taught word formation as well as how words might be changed or reformulated to fit different grammatical contexts. Among the most characteristic forms of English word building or word formation are affixation, compounding and conversion.

11.3.3.1    affixation - it is the process by which prefixes and suffixes are added to the base item; this process allows for item modification in meaning and/or change from one part of speech to another e.g.: hand+full - handful, hair+less - hairless, etc. Students must be madę aware of the meanings of different affixes and suffixes, and how they go together with base forms,

11.3.3.2    compounding is the process of forming new words from two or morę separate words that can stand independently to fit