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Part of the story of ‘The Capture of Napo della Torre by the Milanese’ late-13th-century wall-paintings. (In situ, Angera castle; author’s photograph)

employers were nsnally expected to sitpply them with ammunition. Crossbowmen were graded according to competency: a fully qualified man was one jndged capable of' repairing a crossbow, while a ‘master crossbowman’ conld make such a weapon from scratch.

Frequent tension between militia infantry and professional foot soldiers may have been the result of insecurity on the part of the militia, who rightly felt that their position was under threat. Certainly, many States were increasingly happy to collect fines instead of enforcing militia service, sińce the money conld be used to hire professionals. It was also a ‘buyer’s market’ with plenty of troops available. A smali standing army, free from local political involvement, was the preferred option of many of those governing the cities. Many constitntions were modified to allow for this; for example, Florence drew up new legał codes in 1337 so that eacli masnadn of 50 professional infantrymen had to include at least 20 non-Florentines. The unwillingness of Florentine militiamen, whether from city or contado, to do tedious garrison duty meant that increasing numbers of professionals were enlisted in the 1360s and 1370s. The 1378 Ciompi Revolt, led by the Popolo Minuto and vote-less artisans, finally pnt an end to the Florentine militia system, and thereafter crossbowmen were almost entirely drawn from full-time ‘foreign’ professional st i pen di mi who brought their families with thern. Whole units were hired complete with their own support, command structures and military bands.

HOME AND WORK

Less is known about the ereryday life of middle-class people in medieval Enrope than is known abont the experiences of the aristocracy. However, becanse there was a large, litcrate urban bourgeoisie in Italy, we know morę about the Italian medieval middle class than of their European contemporaries. The idea that peasants were constantly fleeing to cities in search of a better life is an over-simplification. So is the idea that the old social order broke down in the face of new economic changes. In fact in the late-14th century the status of individuals and families did not change much, while the social hierarchy seems to have become morę rigid, not less so.

Those who migrated to cities from the coun-tryside often kept close links with their original \illages sińce kinship ties were essential for indi-vidual and family security. Meanwhile the concentration of inter-related groups within specific parts of a city increased their economic, political and military power.

Family structures changed significantly in the llth and 12th centuries as a result of an increase in the importance of patrilineal authority. This meant that fathers had almost complete authority over their children, family, senants and retainers.

There was, inevitably, a corresponding decline in

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