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‘The Martyrdom and Glorification of St. James’, detail of a late i3th century panel by Andrea di Jacopo d’Ognabene, on the antipendium of the Pistola Cathedral silver altar. These infantrymen betray some of the Byzantine influences still seen in Italian equipment. One also wears a form of framed war-hat, descended from a late-Roman prototype, which had been in widespread use during the Carolingian era.

the same time a businessman whose livelihood depended on a fair reputation and adeąuate results.

Various modern historians have done much to set the record straight, among them Michael Mallett, Mercenaries and their Masters (London 1974); Geoffrey Trease, The Condottieri (London, 1970); and Joseph Deiss, Captains of Fortune (London, 1966). The fact that this system persisted for so long must indicate some measure of success. Certainly it would appear that warfare in later medieval I taly— an area of astonishing social, economic, political and even religious tensions— was generally less destructive than in many other parts of Europę. The failure of the system against foreign invasion early in the i6th century may also be less of a condemnation of the condottieri and morę a result ofchanging patterns of warfare. The second half of the 15th century had seen, in France, Spain and elsewhere, the appearance of much larger and to some extent truły national armies, as well as a greater emphasis on gun-powder. Social and economic conditions were also changing rapidly. In fragmented Italy the medieval mercenary leadership became irrelevant, or at least changed itself into something else — perhaps eventually into that later officer class which had its roots in much the same minor aristocratic strata. Meanwhile the humble soldier remained, gratefully accepting his pay from a new master.

Medieval

Mercenaries

Mercenaries had long playecl an important role in Italian warfare, although during the i2th and 13th centuries local militia remained far morę important. The tradition ofuniversal małe military service, established by the Lombards in the 8th century, survived in many regions, particularly in the northern and central cities. This was extended to the countryside as towns established their control over their surrounding contado. In practice, only the privileged and politically active classes actually borę arms. Militias were organised around city ąuarters and subordinate towns, while service was normally defensive and rarely lasted morę than a week. This, and the local pride so character-istic of medieval Italy, meant that militia service was rarely resented.

Most militiamen were infantry, as few citizens could afford a horse, and the infantryman’s skills were, in any case, less specialised than those of the horseman. Wealthier militia cavalry often tended to come from the rural petty-nobility. In open battle, as in the manning of their city walls, the infantry had a primarily defensive role, at least until the crossbow was widely adopted. Lacking

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