‘Soldiers at the Crucifixion’ on a damaged wail-painting from c. 1330-35. (In situ, church of Sant’ Abbondio, Como; author’s photograph)

or multi-shot crossbows were used in medieval China, and references to them can be found in 12th-century Egypt. A similar device capable of shooting 15 arrows is mentioned in a 12th-century Yenetian sonrce, and (morę realistically) an eight-bolt multiple-shot Venetian crossbow is described in a document dating from 1411. However, only China brought snch devices into practical nse. (See Platę E for illustrated details of crossbow spanning methods and mechanisms.)

FROM MILITiAMAN TO PROFESSIONAL area. Most feudal infantry (pedites) were of servile origin and a large proportion were non-combatants, including guastatori, whose primary role was to destroy enemy crops. Those who fought in battle tended to be conscripted freemen or mercenaries, many of whom were archers. For freemen, such serrice was a privilege and duty, yet the laws they served under were very different to those upheld by the knightly cavalry. In the 12th and early-13th centuries figliting with bows and crossbows was still regarded as ‘lower-class warfare’ by both the knights and by the spear-armed urban infantry militiamen who fought in close combat. It took many years for crossbowmen to achieye elite status: unfortunately, by this time the crossbow was no longer a decisiye tactical weapon.

Urban militias were conscripted when circum-stances dictated, and were composed of noble cayalry, non-noble cayalry (from the wealthier middle class) and infantry (mostly from the middle class and artisans). Cities could also cali upon men from their surrounding area - the local rural aristocracy often hacl a quasi-feudal relationship with the city, fegarding it as their surrogate ‘lorcf. The laws governing conscription, training, mustering and arming were very precise and were written into the city’s constitution. They were also modified in response to military and political changes. Mercenaries had long been present in urban armies, and they continued to play a role. The really poor, however, were rarely involved in such matters.

Urban knights had been integrated into the militia sińce the lOth century. Nevertheless the infantry now dominated, not only numerically (a proportion of ten pedites to one knight was the norm) but also politically: the milites were no longer dominant and they could not afford to despise the pedites, who wielded political power. Such circumstances meant that Italian communal armies were at the forefront of a revival in effectiye tactical co-ordination between cayalry