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��Professionalisms, sublanguages and registers of sports utterances STUDIES IN PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TOURISM Vol. 16, No. 1, 2009 JAN O{D{YCSKI Pedagogical University, Krak�w, Poland PROFESSIONALISMS, SUBLANGUAGES AND REGISTERS OF SPORTS UTTERANCES Key words: utterance, professionalisms, sublanguage, cognitive linguistics, sport language. ABSTRACT The article is a thorough analysis of professionalisms, sublanguages and registers in sport commentaries in the present-day media. The author demonstrates a cognitive framework and socio-linguistic situation of the language of sport and scrutinizes the media coverage of tennis matches as an example of implementation of different aspects of sports utterances. Cognitive linguistics is a fundamental trend of thought which attempts to reconcile heterogeneous characteristics of colloquial and professional sport utterances. It emphasises the language of sport being treated as a manifestation of feelings and values. Professionalisms are defined as words, lexis which constitutes a predecessor of many expressions or phrases with a limited range of technical terminologies forms a link (similar to usage within a professional group. Within pro- a family resemblance) to official scientific and fessionalisms an area characterized by official technical terminology, the origins of which are terminology can be distinguished as well as strictly connected with the development of vocabulary and phraseology used colloquially while scientific literature. Simultaneously, professional at work by the representatives of a given lexis indicates a relation to professional jargon, profession [1]. Realizing that the dichotomy which which in itself is a reaction to the cold intellectual- exists between scientific (specialist) knowledge and lization of official terminology [5]. Interesting common knowledge is not distinct, we indicate the perspectives on the implementation of analysis fundamental connections between professionalisms techniques of cognitive structures take shape here, and the spoken and colloquial varieties of language which refer to the semantic model relating to [2]. A reference to the understanding of common context, situationalism, vagueness, comparativity knowledge and common (emotional) evaluation and extensibility of respective units and linguistic (within the realm of values perceptible in a practi- expressions [6]. Cognitive semanticists are of the cal way) [3] becomes particularly helpful. opinion that within the vernacular of an individual Professional utterances illustrate characteristic speaker various semantic representations of a single vocabulary in addition to phraseology. The former expression can co-exist and are explicated by demonstrates a detailed recognition of a given him/her with difficulty. This is mainly due to the sector of reality on one hand, while on the other fact that they are formed differently by reason of a defined emotional stance on particular subjects diverse contexts [7]. A semantic representation and phenomena important to a given profession, depends not only on the mental structure and the trade or environment [4]. In this way, professional psychophysical personality of a speaker, but also on Correspondence should be addressed to: Pedagogical University, ul. Podchor|ych 2, 30-084 Krak�w, Poland, e-mail: mblasiak@ap.krakow.pl 47 Jan O|d|yDski his/her social status, and predominantly on the Attempts to define sublanguages using context and consituation of a communicative act topological concepts (such as set theory or structure (the pragmatics of an utterance) [8]. theory) appear appealing [15]. Such a depiction Sublanguage (Germ. Subsprache) constitutes refers to a language subset which differentiates a variety (?) or a version of natural language which a selected set (configuration) of texts and/or is classified based on sociological parameters and utterances characterized by their functional pecu- formal attributes. A speaker chooses elements from liarity; the entirety of linguistic resources constitu- his/her repertoire of linguistic resources, which in ting this subset is called a sublanguage. At the a way corresponds to a sociological conception of same time it is assumed that a sublanguage X the discipline of linguistic behaviours . The includes such linguistic phenomena which could speaker makes his/her choice based on criteria such also occur in other sublanguages. A sublanguage X as the characteristics of the listener and speaker in thus defined is communicatively autonomous, i.e. it relation to the time, place and the arrangement of includes all linguistic elements needed to construct communication roles [9]. The potential of linguistic a given type of text or utterance. Such a procedure behaviour predominantly constitutes its semantic allows for the classification of theoretically an potential, i.e. what a speaker (writer) can express. infinite number of sublanguages [16]. This leads to the model of language as a network of Register constitutes the third term quite alternative choices made on different levels, namely commonly used in recent linguistic and stylistic those of phonology, grammar (including lexis), literature. It is defined as a consistent changeability syntax and text (discursive) [10]. Sublanguages of language conditioned on its usage within a spe- fill a whole range of language activity whereby cific social context of an industry, domain or topic only limited grammatical and lexical phenomena of an utterance [17]. The subject as a motive of occur in a given sublanguage. A large proportion of specialist vocabulary usage (professionalisms) is lexical and grammatical material appears in several one of many factors used to determine the industry or even in all sublanguages, which allows for the (or professional specialization) [18]. The term referring to a given natural language as a whole domain is borrowed from Fishman who defines it see a distinction made by L. Hoffman of as a cluster of social situations typically constrained a Gesamtsprache marking the entirety of all by a common set of behavioural rules [19]. linguistic resources wherefrom all sublanguages J. BartmiDski uses the term register (as ( Subsprachen ) take the material to achieve neutral, emotional, informal, and careful) when specific communicative acts [11]. Within the referring to the diversification of the conversational selected sublanguages specialist terminology style: The resources of the conversational style are usually comes to the fore. Specialists use this diversified relative to the significance of the specialist terminology to attempt an ordering and function of this style and its various situational systematization of their section of para-linguistic uses. Within those resources peculiar situational reality as explicitly as possible. The reference here registers of forms can be designated, i.e. their types is to specialist sublanguages (Fachsprachen) or (marked stylistically in the narrowest sense) in professional languages which are defined as relation to the degree of formality, seriousness, variants (utterances) used to recognize and define familiarity, substance, figurativeness, emotionality, objects specific to a given specialty as well as for etc [20]. The most significant division, prominent the purpose of communication about them [12]. especially in colloquial vocabulary concerns the The notion of code (sub-code) as an element attitude either towards an objective representation of a sociolinguistic situation refers to the language or a subjective valuation of the subject matter of used by a speaker: the speaker using a specific speech [21]. variety (or version) simultaneously indicates what According to T. Gizbert-Studnicki, the consi- social linguistic community group he or she deration of numerous elements of a socio-linguistic belongs to [13]. The term sublanguage referring situation simultaneously has the following con- to the sociology of language has a clearly hybrid sequence: a set of utterances, determined as regi- character and is vague in meaning. B. Wolniewicz ster, is not characterized by its peculiar linguistic has written about the misunderstandings which characteristics if those linguistic characteristics stem from the confusion of codes with languages peculiar to a given set of utterances are interpreted (within a wider semiotic perspective) [14]. as those, which cannot occur in utterances not 48 Professionalisms, sublanguages and registers of sports utterances belonging to that set. Register as a whole does not Heading towards the implementation of the consist of any peculiar linguistic characteristics; enumerated settlements we will take a closer inte- however, the entire set of those characteristics can rest in the spoken (expressed) sports journalism be described as peculiar [22]. Understanding variety (a television commentary and a tennis game register as a peculiar configuration of functional coverage) [27]. What appears interesting here is the choices made at different linguistic levels approxi- juxtaposition (within the professional sublanguage) mates the concept of sublanguage . What proves of the functional registers which are conditioned on to be interesting within this conception is the the sociolinguistic situation and the subject matter complexity of the depiction as well as the clear of the utterances: these are a television commentary placement of this phenomenon within discourse produced in an official situation of mass media [23]. The difference between register and discourse communication and that of the variants used in consists, among other things, in register being professional instruction in a situation of direct a complete set of all linguistic phenomena contact between a coach and the competitor [28]. characterizing a given type of texts or utterances, Due to sociolinguistic parameters (in relation to whereas the nature of discourse is relative, i.e. its linguistic and paralinguistic practice) it seems specifications grow in value in comparison with the useful to assign a primary register (in our case that specifications of other types of discourse where the of coaching) and a functionally secondary one expression of analogous meaning requires the use (journalist) [29]. of a different set and a different interpretation of The mechanism of accommodation (a functio- linguistic elements [24]. nal adjustment to norm) [30] within textual When looking for fundamental discriminants structures best be traced through the sequences of a register type, which are understood as the realizing diverse types of utterance modality (and components of a separate configuration of linguistic axiology) [31]. Generally speaking, a scientific elements, one can refer to the operating model of utterance is directed towards an objective reflection communicative grammar. This operating model of the relationship between the symbols and objects includes at least three execution levels of a speech being described [32]. A technological utterance act: ( working , professional or industrial ) a) The level of periphrasis derivation and the emphasizes the effectiveness of symbols as factualization of a speech act (i.e. the use of the practiced by a language user, a process which is parameters of time, place and aspect); accompanied by a valuation within the scope of b) The level of interactive grammars, including utilitarian values (which are noticeable in practice). rematically-thematic indicators (the actual These utterances have two goals. The first goal is to segmentation of a speech-act); indicators of cause and control an action (namely, imperative pragmatic functions such as: informational and optative types of speech-acts expressing relating to a presentation and verification of the a request, a wish, an instruction, a demand, an interlocutors knowledge of the world (the order, a command, a pro-hibition, etc.; and an functions of question, negation, acceptance, instructory type of a speech-act to provide counsel, including persuasive and modal functions); instruction, advice, etc.). The other may be to axiological functions, behavioural (illocution- define the postulates, directives and conditions of nary); cataloguing indicators which along with effective action (commissive and directive types of the indicators of communication clarity create speech-acts) [33]. a deictic model (net) of a speech act; From the point of view of action theory, c) The level of discourse management (incl. commissive and directive components are within dialoguing, condensation, anaphora and the realm of motivational indicators and have cataphora derivation, the set of presuppositional normative characteristics. The following indicators indicators, and the set of discourse-aid indica- connected mutually by a net of pragmatic rela- tors in the form of ritualisms and manipulators, tions are mentioned [34]: etc.) [25]. The model of communicative grammar, a) postulative indicators such as one should, one upon an appropriate modification, may also be ought to, it is necessary to& , one needs to& , it helpful in defining the degree of complexity of is advisable to& ; lexical and textual conceptualizations (within a cognitive representation) [26]. 49 Jan O|d|yDski b) auxiliary verbs of permission and prohibition: powinien by skoDczony (it shouldn t have been may may not, can cannot (do something), unfinished = it should have been finished) whereby be enough not be enough (?) and others; the speaker believes that the most significant c) deontic indicators (of an order or recommend- aspect of the matter will be for X if the volley is dation): X must do something, X ought to do won [38]. something, X has to do something, and others; Here is an example of utterance by Polish TV d) valuative indicators, such as: it s worth it isn t sports commentator, Karol Stopa, hereinafter worth (doing something), adjectives: valuable referred to as K.S.: & Here Jacob Hlasek s valueless, fair unfair, valid invalid, useful mistake. The first volley, well, practically useless, appropriate inappropriate, important should ve been finished, but it didn t unimportant, indifferent not indifferent, and happen& not for the first time does Hlasek others [35]. make such a mistake& And the result is Each of the aforementioned indicators is that the Americans have another chance at additionally involved in an array of complicated a break& [Swiss break service]& pragmatic contexts. For example, the term should The subject matter of this information is the can be understood in at least five different ways, which may lead to numerous instances of misunder- judgment of the commentator about the lack of value (a negative value ) of the state of affairs standing [36]. Specifically, we are dealing here being described (which is unanimous with the with the following meanings: opinion of those who are knowledgeable about 1) normative (in a speech act where someone is tennis). The directive value of these sentences, and directly commanding or forbidding someone thus the wish to have an influence on the listener, else to do something); so crucial to professional variants of utterances 2) directive (goal-oriented) in a speech act where (achieved in direct contact between the trainer and someone is being advised or a recommendation competitor), is not indicated openly but is implicit is being made as to how to behave in order to or even neutralized (in this context it is non- reach a certain goal; functional), left to some extent to inference and the 3) evaluative or valuative when the speaker good will of the listener, which can clearly be seen expresses approval or disapproval for some in the following constructions with illocutionary state determined by the phrase should (do it) force: Musisz to skoDczy! (You must finish it! meaning it s good if X does that ; encouragement in the form of a command), 4) prognostic, in an utterance where X expresses Powiniene[ to skoDczy! (You should finish it! an a conviction that, based on some knowledge excuse, a reprimand, a rebuke of the competitor (adequate or inadequate to reality), the occurrence of one fact which is causally inter- after an unsuccessful play [which is a statement TO SOMEONE] [39]). linked to another will lead to the occurrence of In this manner, the modal, narrative and the other: If someone s proposal has fulfilled all formal requirements, it should be con- rhetorical perspective of discourse changes fundamentally in the descriptive register of a jour- sidered. ; nalist statement. The discourse is fixed not so much 5) in a descriptive sense an utterance of at instruction or a correction of mistakes (as in the obligation X should do Z can be synonymous direct contact between a trainer and competitor), with the following variants: but at the assessment and appraisal of technical a. due to some existing norm X is elements observed during the provided coverage of commanded to do Z ; a meet see the following seemingly modal b. I m estimating that it would be good if X construction mo|na oceni (it can be assessed, did Z where mo|na means there exists the possibility c. I advise X to do Z if he wants to achieve of ), which is interpreted as either a common goal C [37]. announcement or is classified as so-called alethic The meaning of the predicate powinien modality [40]. (should), which is fundamental to axiology, can be explicated with the aid of dobrze (well) or zle Here is another fragment of utterance by (badly); see the following TV commentator s Polish sports commentator ZdzisBaw Ambro- utterance: nie powinien zosta nie skoDczony = ziak hereinafter referred to as Z.A.: & Yes& 50 Professionalisms, sublanguages and registers of sports utterances you can easily see how effective a service expressions with powinien/powinna (ought to), straight into a person is (as they say nale|y nie nale|y (should shouldn t): unkindly)& straight into the opponent, K.S.: & This is the type of coach who ehm& it s just as awkward as playing into doesn t so much pay attention if the right leg the middle [of the court] or close to the side should be moved five centimeters to the line& left at a forehand [47], or, I don t know& if Statements stating a possibility, which are & the racket should be & held at a greater or ordinary announcement should be differentiated smaller angle, but he s a master of moti- from statement of permission, for example, mo|esz vation& I think this may be an element sobie pozwoli (you can afford to) in the sense which Becker needed the most& that wolno ci means you may (as expressed in K.S.: & but also coaches hope, teach that a statement to someone ). Compare this to you shouldn t play from a backhand along a changed narrative perspective (as expressed in the line in this spot because the net there is a statement for someone ), in the form of an the highest assessment sequence of a TV commentary, a meta- The use of professionalisms in a journalist s image utterance, an ostensive function (referring statement on television, although it has an someone to visual information) [41], a micro- incomparably wider reach as it takes place in mass situation defined by the deictic formula of I m media, it still clearly has a secondary character (the speaking to YOU (French: VOUS) or I m telling character of stylization) in comparison with a natu- YOU (French: VOUS) , you, who are the TV ral situation of working instruction which takes audience gathered in front of the monitors [42]: place directly between a trainer and a competitor, Z.A.: & Great! Great! Did you see for example during a coaching session or a test [Becker s] very active backhand [43] at match. In the journalist register of a professional Courier s second serve& Courier, well, he utterance professionalisms function within a deictic can t afford to serve safely after ruining the structure: I m telling you (French vous) how it first serve, because the result is what we see should be, or that it shouldn t be done, because here right now& [visual information: that s the way it is done in coaching practice, see Becker s won a ball] the following constructions in spoken language described as liaison/clustering [48]: It appears that in the Polish language, sentences expressed with the predicate powinien K.S.: & alright& at this level playing& (ought to) always express a standpoint of the such high returns [49]& you shouldn t do speaker (at least their approval), whereas sentences that& This is an invitation for the attacking using trzeba, wolno, nie wolno (you have to, you player to finish [ get further points ]& may, you may not) can express both the beliefs of A change of illocutionary (and deictic) the speaker as well as the opinions of others being perspective is clearly noticeable when compared reported by him [44] see the following sequence with You can t do this! (having the characteristics of an emotional evaluation of the TV commentary: of a rebuke or reprimand). K.S.: & Beautiful! A beautiful stop-volley Deontic modality, connoting a degree of [45] backhand, a cross-court shot [46] too. requirement or obligation (from Greek deon A very difficult play& Courier has hit the meaning obligation, duty) characterizes postulative ball running& you have to have an amazing statement informing of a volitively-evaluative stance feel for the ball in order to hit it in such of a speaker. Axiological information contained in a way& [I.W.: a replay of the scene from these statements constitutes a combination of a VCR] Here you go& below the knee with judgments (badly well), of negation as well as a feel for it & a beautiful ball& include a volitive element (exerting pressure on the listener) [50]. Statements, which are always an expression A recommendation (a command) of a state of of the axiological stance of a speaker ought to be affairs to be achieved is more imperative from its differentiated from those in which the speaker evaluation in case of the version (register) of a pro- solely reports the postulates and directives of fessional community (coaching community) others, see the following clearly descriptive 51 Jan O|d|yDski utterance. It involves placing the listener in a state (a notification); a lack of a lexeme (of a pro- of obligation with a clear intention of fulfilment fessionalism) indicates a cognitive void whereas (completion) of postulated actions, for example, cognitive macro-entities constitute a kind of You must attack at the net! ( if you don t do this, it semantic representations of a sentence (of time, will be bad). In the journalist register of a statement segment or sequence) within discourse [55]. (in connection with the use of the 3rd person of the In the case of a television commentary it is verb musi has to ), the narrative perspective of possible to assign suitable verbal and textual a postulative statement changes, where a speaker sequences (correlates, analogues, and information pronounces solely his or her conviction of the substitutes) to particular perceptive situations of positive value of the state of affairs being a journalist s speech-act (the codes and sub-codes communicated through the use of a propositional of a show). These assigned sequences within verba- component (which is in unison with the lized information can be in the form of one-word community s opinion) see the following notifications, facial contortions (a sign of emotion), fragments of a TV commentary: expressions, phrases (functioning as independent utterances), sentences and sentence fragments, and Z.A.: & Yes, on such a [as we can see] fast finally as complete fragments of a spoken text (its court even a player who mainly plays at the time, segments and narrative structures) [56], see back line of the court (Courier is such a the following: player)& has to try to attack at the net& He in a sequence referring to the sub-codes of did it well in this exchange [of balls]& perception and identification in order to Z.A.: We ll get back [to that] in a moment, determine a person (a figure) noticed but not but now Jimmy Courier with a score of five identified (a young lady), because she is four is serving and he has to win this game unknown, in a situation of a perceptive point [51] in order to be able to stay in the minimum: game& Z.A.: & he has to win this game point in Visual information follows (hereinafter order to reach a tie-break [52]& referred to as I.W.): a close up of one of Jimmy Courier s coaches; A descriptive meaning of the following nor- mative expression: X must accomplish behaviour Z Z.A.: & and this is Jose Higueras& one of under the circumstances O may emerge in several the two & [coaches] unfortunately being variants, depending on four different inter- blocked by this young lady [visible on pretations: screen]& I ve said [that already]& Jose a) logical; Higueras, eeehm and Brad Steinem& they b) dynamic: in a given set of circumstances there have been in charge of Jimmy Courier s exist such factors which inevitably will lead to career for almost two years the fulfillment of behavior Z ; to determine a recognized person (in conditions c) axiological: based on the judgment of a subject of a perceptive minimum): it would be good if X exhibited behavior Z K.S.: & A moment ago, John s brother under the circumstances O ; Patrick McEnroe rushed by in a grey d) psychological: I m absolutely convinced that t-shirt& [conceptualization registering in X under the circumstances of O must exhibit action landscape ]& This is an interesting behavior Z [53]. person, because is a person who he changed One of the levels of a cognitive depiction, the order of the development of his career& where an ordering of the elusive outer world takes Everyone drops out of school and univer- place, is the cognitive structure. Within this cogni- sities and, ehm& and sacrifice everything for tive structure paralinguistic and linguistic informa- tennis& But he finished Stanford first, and tion is comparable to and noticeable in the form of only then did he give himself over to a finite set of rules representing conceptual well- tennis& [conceptualization problematizing formedness rules [54]. Thus, something in the form in consciousness landscape ] [57]; of a convenient and linguistically filtered model of the world is constructed, where every concept is an with reference to the shades and colours of the entity juxtaposed with an appropriate lexeme outer world: 52 Professionalisms, sublanguages and registers of sports utterances Z.A.: & And this greenest [58], which impressions of interlocutors at the moment of actually isn t even green& (as we can see) conversation (sportscast) and adopts the but has this bluish-purplish color [in a land- quantifier: at least one of the interlocutors is scape of visual image retrieval]& It was observing that X see journalist modifications supposed to be an invention, ehhhm& this of jargon tennis terminology in an evaluative pavement was actually created in Ponte sequence of the following utterance: Vedra, where there is one of the headquarters K.S.: & Beautiful play by John McEnroe& of ATP [59]& it was supposed to be an Please pay attention [during a replay], how answer to those dangerous hard cement deeply, ehm.. he can get into the net [62]& courts which you often play on in America& Most tennis players, ehm, when playing [conceptualization in consciousness land- a volley already stop in the area of, ehhm& scape ]. the service line [the middle of the court]& When characterising professionalisms we John McEnroe is playing th& this volley have been referring to the concept of common running and & and finished the hit practically knowledge and common evaluations (within the hanging on the net& domain of values which are perceptible in 4) Information obtained during a process of a practical way). The entire area of common inference, i.e. a characteristic mechanism of knowledge [60] can be divided into three inference allowing for the acquisition of new fundamental parts: information which a given announcement does 1) General knowledge (and common-specialist not include. This information is obtained knowledge) which would consist of convictions through the application of a set of pre-selected and judgments common to a specific social factors which is a fragment of an adequately group (including valuative judgments) which organized knowledge area which in turn are not subject to dissolution in the long-term constitutes the cognitive basis of an entire memory of that social group, which in turn inference process [63] see an utterance stands out from the general public due to its sequence which may lead to the conclusion that work field (or interests) and adopts the a cognitive dissonance exists and results from quantifier: each (specialist or person interested a conflict of values between fair play and in tennis) knows that X see the following TV a natural attempt at obtaining an advantageous commentary sequence: result: Z.A.: & Yes, now then in this fourth set Z.A.: & Yes, John McEnroe played straight everything so far is going according with the into his opponent& Here, in such a situation, doubles rule of maintaining games, or & during such a game [playing for such winning games during own service [61]. stakes], and actually in any game, it s 2) Personal knowledge which consists of discur- difficult to speak of any kind of gallantry on sive information relating to a speaking micro- court, grace& After all, he didn t do it to word or a micro-world of those who speak, cause& ehm, his opponent pain, but just to, which is subject to dissolution in long-term & ehm to get a point. memory and which adopts the quantifier: at The inconsistency within a motivational least one of the interlocutors (commentator) account of someone who is interpreting facts and knows that X see the following meta-image between an actual event on court results from utterance: a twofold interpretation of the fair play principle Z.A.: & And Rudi Berger (now on your with reference to general norms of behaviour and screens) is leading in this game& Rudi those in place during a sports competition. Berger who we remember, eehm, from two Inconsistencies surfacing in the representa- years ago& he [was] a supervisor on behalf tion of common knowledge are of operational of ATP at the Philip Morris Challenger& nature, depending on the type of an inferential K.S.: & in Warsaw& situation, i.e. a set of pre-selected suggestions and convictions required to take a given inferential step. 3) Catalogued knowledge which consists of This can be proved by adding to each formulated information arrived at from sensory 53 Jan O|d|yDski (inferred or deduced) conviction the following Expression can encompass all possible psy- formula: not always and not everywhere , inclu- chological experiences, and thus not only a desire ding an individual opinion along with the interlo- (or a will) but also other diverse emotions, such as cutors observations see a different fragment of delight, surprise, irritation and finally the a commentary: experience of a conviction (judgment) which is something different than an announcement intended Z.A.: & It s worth it to look at the outfit of to inform a listener, and still different from causing the American, which many compare to, in him a certain state of knowledge [68]. eehhmm,& kind of a baseball style& He Cognitive linguistics becomes for us a funda- [Courier] likes baseball very much, plays it mental trend of thought which attempts to reconcile fairly well and the t-shirt really isn t a model these heterogeneous, although natural, character- of tennis style & [which, as we know, ristics of colloquial and professional utterances. traditionally supposes a white outfit] Cognitive linguistics treats language as a funda- In this way, two contradictory tendencies can mental form of experiencing reality; it emphasises be observed within the area of a spoken text of strict relations between a human s cognitive a professional commentary which result from apparatus, its changes and the rules of the set of its a dichotomy between scientific knowledge, of ideas, and what is also significant it emphasises which the purpose is to experience, describe and language being treated as a manifestation of explain reality and that of common knowledge feelings and values. which aims merely to create a cognitive base All sources quoted in the article come from the archives of the necessary and sufficient for linguistic activity on an Chair of Logopedics and Educational Linguistics of the individual scale [64]. Institute of Polish at Pedagogical University of Cracow Frequently, seemingly contradictory tenden- (Katedra Logopedii i Lingwistyki Edukacyjnej Instytutu cies can be observed within a single sequence or Filologii Polskiej Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego, Krak�w). several dialogue calques of a report and commen- tary discourse. These tendencies can be explained solely based on cognitive linguistics, for example: FOOT-NOTES a) the use of units with ambiguous or a hazy meaning which are dependent on the context of [1] Encyklopedia wiedzy o jzyku polskim (Encyclo- the usage (common knowledge) while at the pedia of the Polish Language), S. UrbaDczyk, ed., Ossolineum, WrocBaw 1978. same time using the terminology of a specialist [2] S. Gajda, Z. Adamiszyn, ed., Jzyk potoczny jako register see the following simple evaluative przedmiot badaD jzykoznawczych (Colloquial sequence: language as a subject of linguistic reserach), Opole K.S.: & An attempt to get into the net 1991; Anusiewicz J., Nieckula F. eds., Potoczno[ w jzyku i kulturze (Colloqualism in language and with such a slicing backhand [65]& culture), Jzyk a kultura, vol. 5, WrocBaw 1992. unsuccessful& [3] J. Puzynina, Jzyk warto[ci (Language of values), b) a tight link between or an insufficiently clear Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1992. separation of the ontological and axiological [4] Encyklopedia wiedzy o jzyku polskim (Encyclo- layers of utterances (of intuitive meanings and pedia of the Polish Language), S. UrbaDczyk, ed., Ossolineum, WrocBaw 1978. apparent knowledge) [66] see the following [5] S. Gajda, Wprowadzenie do teorii terminu (Intro- fragment of an emotional statement of duction to the Theory of Terminology), Opole 1990. assessment: [6] I. Nowakowska-Kempna, Aproksymacja semantycz- K.S.: & Wow! Great play! Great play! & nego continuum (Approximation of Semantic that is exactly the doubles craftiness, that is Continuum), (in:) Jzyk a kultura (Language and Culture), vol. 8: Podstawy metodologiczne seman- the hint of genius& McEnroe s sharp cross- tyki wsp�Bczesnej (Methodological Foundations of court forehand [67]& Modern Semantics), WrocBaw 1992, pp. 125-156. I.W.: [replay of play from a VCR] [7] R. Langacker, Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Z.A.: & Let s see it, let s see it because it s vol. I, Stanford, California, Stanford University worth it& to play a forehand in such a Press, 1987. [8] R. Jackendoff, Semantics and Cognition, MIT Press, way& only McEnroe can do that Cambridge, Mass. 1983. 54 Professionalisms, sublanguages and registers of sports utterances [9] J. Fishman, Who speaks what language to whom Masters Tournament finals, between Boris Becker and when, La linguistique 2, 1965, pp. 67-88. and Jim Courier held in the Frankfurter Festhalle on [10] M.A.K. Halliday, Explorations in the functions of 29 November 1992 (rebroadcast) as well as from the language, Edward Arnold &Co, Baltimore 1973. Davis Cup doubles final (USA-Switzerland) on 5 [11] L. Hoffman, Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache, December 1992. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1976. [28] J. O|d|yDski, Funkcjonalne warianty wypowiedzi [12] D. M�hn, R. Pelka, Fachsprachen: eine Einf�hrung, w [rodowisku sportowym (Functional varieties Max Niemayer Verlag, T�bingen 1984; Wojnicki S., of sport utterances), Socjolingwistyka, 1980, 3, Subjzyki specjalistyczne (Specialist sublanguages), pp. 69-103. (in:) Teoretyczne podstawy terminologii (Theoreti- [29] J. O|d|yDski, M�wione warianty wypowiedzi w [ro- cal foundations of terminology), F. Grucza, ed., dowisku sportowym (Spoken Varieties of Sport Ossolineum, WrocBaw 1991, pp. 61-77. Utterances), WrocBaw 1979. [13] Z. BokszaDski, A. Piotrowski, M. Zi�Bkowski, [30] T. Skubalanka, Wprowadzenie do gramatyki sty- Socjologia jzyka (Sociology of language), Wiedza listycznej jzyka polskiego (Introduction to stylistic Powszechna, Warszawa 1977. gram mar of the Polish language), Lublin 1991, [14] B. Wolniewicz, Jzyki i kody (Langauges and pp. 10-16. Codes), (in:) Zagadnienia socjo- i psycholingwistyki [31] R. Grzegorczykowa, Wprowadzenie do semantyki (Issues in Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics), jzykoznawczej (Introduction to linguistic semiotics), A. Schaff, ed., Ossolineum, WrocBaw 1980, pp. 7-37. Warszawa 1990, pp. 134-153, (unit IV: Problemy [15] J. BaDczerowski, J. Pogonowski, T. Zg�Bka, Wstp modalno[ci (Problems of modality). do jzykoznawstwa (Introduction to linguistics), [32] S. Gajda, op.cit., pp. 23-26. J. Lukszyn, Ling- Wydawnictwo UAM, PoznaD 1982. wistyczne problemy badaD terminologicznych [16] S. Wojnicki, op. cit., p. 66. (Linguistic Problems in Terminological Research), [17] G.N. Leech, English in advertising: A linguistic (in:) Teoretyczne podstawy& , pp. 79-96. study of advertising in Great Britain, Barnes&Noble, [33] Z. ZiembliDski, M. ZieliDski, Dyrektywy i spos�b London 1966; Crystal D., Davy D., Investigating ich wypowiadania (Directive and their utterances), English style, Longmans, Green and Co., London Warszawa 1992, in particular Part II: M. ZieliDski, 1969. Wypowiedzi dyrektywalne w praktyce jzykowej [18] J. Lyons, Semantyka (Semantics), vol. 2 trans. (Directive utterances in language practice), pp. 69- Weinsberg A. Warszawa 1989, pp. 188-206. -101. [19] J.A. Fishman, The sociology of language, Newbury [34] Ibid. House, Rawley, Mass. 1972. [35] M. Nowakowska, Teoria dziaBania (Theory of action), [20] J. BartmiDski, Styl potoczny (Vernacular style), (in:) PaDstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, PWN, War- Jzyk a kultura& , vol. 5, pp. 37-54. szawa 1979; J. Puzynina, op. cit. [21] T. Gizbert-Studnicki, Jzyk prawny z perspektywy [36] M. ZieliDski, op. cit., pp. 81-86. socjolingwistycznej (Legal Language in a Socio- [37] Ibid. linguistic Perspective), Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersy- [38] Polish wolej from English volley a kick or hit in tetu JagielloDskiego, vol. 26, Krak�w 1986, p. 94. which a player returns a moving ball before it [22] Ibid. touches the ground. [23] B.Z. Kielar, Problemy tBumaczenia tekst�w specja- [39] J. Lalewicz, Komunikacja jzykowa i literatura listycznych (Issues in translation of specialist texts), (Language communication and literature), Ossoli- (in:) Teoretyczne podstawy& , pp. 133-140. neum, WrocBaw 1975. [24] 24 J. Lehrberger, Automatic translation and concept [40] J. Antas, Projekt metodologii badaD relacji obraz- of sublanguage, (in:) R. Kittredge, J. Lehrberger sBowo w przekazie telewizyjnym (Methodology of eds., Sublanguage, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1982, Research of the Image-word Relationship in Tele- pp. 81-106. vision Broadcast), Zeszyty Prasoznawcze, 1981, [25] A. Awdiejew, Model gramatyki komunikacyjnej no. 2. (research project) (Model of communicative [41] Ibid. grammar research project), (in:) Studia nad [42] W. Miodunka, A. Ropa, Z zagadnieD socjo- polszczyzn m�wion Krakowa (Studies in spoken lingwistycznego opisu sytuacji. Na przykBadzie Polish), B. Dunaj, K. O|�g eds., Krak�w 1991, sytuacji telewizyjnych (Problems of sociolinguistic pp. 9-38. situational des-cription), Socjolingwistyka, vol. 2, [26] A. Wierzbicka, Lexicography and Conceptual 1979, pp. 65-75. Analysis, Ann Arbor, Caroma 1985. [43] Polish bekhend from English back-hand a hit in [27] The text of the television commentary comes from which the right arm is brought across the body with two commentators: ZdzisBaw Ambroziak (Z.A.) and the back of the hand facing the same direction as the Karol Stopa (K.S.), It refers to a tennis game, hit itself, (left-handed players the other way round). 55 Jan O|d|yDski [44] R. Grzegorczykowa, op. cit., pp. 150-153. [57] J. Bruner, Actual minds, possible worlds, Cambridge [45] Polish stop-wolej from English stop-volley a softly 1986. hit volley that barely falls over the net and cannot be [58] Greenset type of tennis court surface similar to reached for a return. Tartan surface. [46] Polish kros from English cross (shot) a stroke [59] ATP Association of Tennis Professionals. played diagonally across the court. [60] A. Awdiejew, Wiedza potoczna a inferencja [47] Polish forhend from English forehand a hit in (Common knowledge and inference), (in:) Jzyk which the palm of the hand which is holding the a kultura& , op. cit., vol. 5, pp. 21-27. racket faces the same direction as the hit itself. [61] Polish serwis from English service the act or [48] N. Iwanowa-PerczyDska, Wybrane cechy skBadnio- manner of putting the ball into play; serve. wo-stylistyczne polszczyzny m�wionej (Selected [62] Jargon: get into the net play very close to the net . syntactic and stylistic characteristics of spoken [63] D. Sperber, D. Wilson, Relevance, Blackwell, Polish), Prace Instytutu Jzyka Polskiego (Works of Oxford 1986. Institute of Polish Language), nr 7, WrocBaw 1975. [64] A. Awdiejew, Wiedza potoczna& op. cit., p. 22. [49] Polish return from English return the action or an [65] Polish slajs or jargon szlajs from Endlish slice or instance of returning a ball. German Slice hit the bottom of the ball so that it [50] R. Grzegorczykowa, op. cit., p. 150. does not bounce very high when it hit the ground; [51] Polish gem from English game part of a tennis J. O|d|yDski, Polskie wsp�Bczesne sBownictwo match which consists of points. sportowe (Modern sport vocabulary in Polish), [52] Polish tajbrek from English tie-break extra play at WrocBaw 1970. the end of a game when both teams or players in [66] J. Biniewicz, Potoczny a naukowy obraz [wiata tennis have the same points, to decide who is the w tekstach nauk [cisBych (Common and scientific winner. image of the world in scientific discourses), (in:) [53] M. ZieliDski, op. cit., pp. 85-86. Jzyk a kultura& op. cit., vol. 5, pp. 111-118. [54] R.S. Jackendoff, op. cit., p. 17. [67] What is meant here is playing a forehand diagonally [55] Ibid. when the ball hits the service area of the opponent [56] More about it can be found in my article: Kontekst close to the net (jargon also: tight cross-court). wizualny wypowiedzi telewizyjnej (Visual context [68] R. Grzegorczykowa, op. cit.; J. Puzynina, op. cit. of television utterances), (in:) Zeszyty Praso- znawcze. 56

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