a relational perspective on turnover examining structural, attitudinal and behavioral predictors

A RELATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON TURNOVER: EXAMINING

STRUCTURAL, ATTITUDINAL, AND BEHAVIORAL

PREDICTORS

KEVIN W. MOSSHOLDER

Louisiana State University

RANDALL P. SETTOON

Southeastern Louisiana University

STEPHANIE C. HENAGAN

Louisiana State University

This study examined whether structural, attitudinal, and behavioral variables of a
relational nature were predictive of employee turnover. Participants were a sample of
176 health care employees from a large public medical center. Using survival analysis
over a five-year time frame, we found that two such variables, network centrality and
interpersonal citizenship behavior, predicted turnover. Implications of taking a rela-
tional perspective toward turnover and other withdrawal behaviors found in organi-
zations are discussed.

Much of the research examining turnover has

grown from March and Simon’s (1958) notions con-
cerning the perceived desirability and ease of leav-
ing one’s job. Reviews of this research stream (Grif-
feth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000; Maertz & Campion,
1998) confirm that perceived desirability, often
measured as job satisfaction or other job-related
attitudes, is negatively associated with turnover.
Ease of movement variables, principally assessed
through job alternative perceptions and job search
behavior, also predict turnover. Despite the wide
acceptance of this research lineage, recognition that
other factors besides work attitudes and job alter-
natives may be important for understanding turn-
over has stimulated some to expand turnover re-
search in new directions (e.g., Mitchell & Lee,
2001).

The present study springs from what could be

viewed as a paradox in the turnover literature. Al-
though conceptual frameworks have cast turnover
within the context of relational processes (e.g., at-
tachment, separation, exchange), most studies have
not explicitly emphasized the effects of relational
variables on turnover. The theoretical relevance of
a relational perspective on turnover has begun to
receive greater attention (Dess & Shaw, 2001; Uhl-
Bien, Graen, & Scandura, 2000), establishing an
impetus to investigate turnover through a relational

lens. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to
address relevant relational variables having theo-
retical links with turnover and test their predictive
potential.

THEORETICAL RATIONALE

Support for a relational perspective on organiza-

tional withdrawal processes is rooted partly in the
concept of social capital, which refers to the sum of
actual and potential resources available through
relationships that individuals have established
with others (Leana & Van Buren, 1999). In review-
ing the value of social relationships for competitive
advantages, Uhl-Bien and her colleagues (2000)
noted that low-quality relationships can have large
costs for organizations, among them higher turn-
over. Others have suggested that, as constituted in
relational networks, social capital may reduce turn-
over (Krackhardt & Hanson, 1993). For the most
part, however, such discussions have been framed
in terms of strategic organizational concerns that
only indirectly address individual processes un-
derlying this mitigating influence.

To understand at a more formative level how

relationships may affect turnover, it is instructive
to consider underlying processes from which rela-
tional ties emerge. Social exchange theory (Blau,
1964) implies that processes fostering workplace
ties influence individuals interacting with other
organization members. Social exchanges rest on the
notion that gestures of goodwill will be recipro-

The helpful comments of David Harrison, Rodger Grif-

feth, Dan Newman, and Robert Steel on an initial draft
manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.

娀 Academy of Management Journal
2005, Vol. 48, No. 4, 607–618.

607

cated at some future time. Although instrumental rea-
sons may also be involved, the benefits exchanged
often take on value because they symbolize the qual-
ity of the relationships. Leaving such exchange rela-
tionships may entail a psychic loss, making with-
drawal personally costly to individuals.

Maertz and Griffeth (2004) identifed constituent

forces (attachments to others in an organization) as
one of eight distinctive motivational forces under-
lying “voluntary turnover” (departure from an or-
ganization despite having an opportunity to re-
main). These researchers note that even extensive
turnover models have overlooked the potential role
of relationships with coworkers and leaders, which
may partly explain why few turnover studies have
focused explicitly on relational constructs. We be-
lieve that the chances of organizational attachment
grow concomitantly as individuals develop more
extensive, higher-quality social networks. Kahn
(1998) suggested that even though people develop
work-related connections to move closer to organ-
izational goals, connections are also formed for
more complicated reasons. His relational systems
perspective suggests that noncognitive elements,
such as respect, warmth, and personal regard
should be acknowledged as essential in such rela-
tionships. Characteristics of high-quality relational
systems enmesh individuals within a relational
web, making them less susceptible to forces that
could dislodge them from their organization. Sev-
eral researchers have described this circumstance
as embedding and have argued that it protects
against shocks that lead people to consider with-
drawal (e.g., Mitchell & Lee, 2001) and that gradu-
ally erode positive organizational attachment (Burt,
2001). As Maertz and Campion (1998) noted, posi-
tive work relationships can influence individuals
to remain with an organization despite their dislik-
ing various features of it.

We reviewed the turnover literature through a

relational lens, focusing on studies in which social
exchange processes (Blau, 1964) or relational sys-
tems elements (Kahn, 1998) were evident. Vari-
ables connoting key relational processes such as
reciprocity, support, and mutual obligation were
considered as potential predictors of turnover, as
were variables suggesting connectedness with oth-
ers. Another important stricture in our literature
search concerned the locus of exchange. Opportu-
nities to form ties occur more readily in contexts
that are free of constraints imposed by status or
power differences. Relational ties would also be
expected to arise more often among individuals
working proximally and among those who are in-
terdependent rather than independent in their
tasks and goals. In the workplace, those most likely

to exhibit these characteristics would normally be
described as coworkers. Researchers have noted
that feelings of mutual obligation and expectations
of reciprocity and supportiveness are hallmarks of
high-quality exchanges among peers and coworkers
(e.g., Sherony & Green, 2002). In keeping with no-
tions of interpersonal exchange, we refined our
search to emphasize variables connoting such rela-
tional qualities in a coworker milieu.

Our review found sufficient theoretical and em-

pirical support for associating the following rela-
tional variables with turnover: network centrality,
perceived coworker support, felt obligation toward
coworkers, and interpersonal citizenship behavior.
Given the health care context in which the current
study was conducted, we expected these variables
to be especially salient. Because providing care in
such a work environment requires giving of oneself
emotionally, replenishment in the form of rela-
tional and emotional support from coworkers and
other employees is important (Parker, 2002). Stud-
ies have suggested that the absence of such support
can result in withdrawal from an organization (see,
e.g., Kahn, 1993). Network centrality should be piv-
otal in such situations, as stronger ties with co-
workers mean more opportunities for employees to
exchange “social wares.” Perceived coworker sup-
port taps the amount of peer assistance employees
feel they have received, and felt obligation indi-
cates the degree to which they feel obliged to recip-
rocate in kind. Finally, interpersonal citizenship
behavior indicates whether employees have actu-
ally engaged in helping coworkers. Below, we ex-
plain further why each of these variables should be
expected to affect employee turnover and provide
specific hypotheses regarding such effects. It
should be noted that we considered other variables
that did refer to coworkers but did not include
them in the study, as they were more attitudinal
than relational (e.g., satisfaction with coworkers).
Other potential predictors had relational overtones
deriving from group dynamics (e.g., group cohe-
sion). Because we were interested in the dynamics
of interpersonal relations rather than more diffuse
group processes, such variables were also excluded.

Hypotheses

Network centrality. Interpersonal networks de-

lineate interaction patterns among individuals in
organizations. These relationship structures facili-
tate shared meaning about goals and values and act
as important identity referents for individuals
learning what it means to be part of an organization
(Bolino, Turnley, & Bloodgood, 2002). Broadly
speaking, network centrality refers to the relative

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numbers of direct and indirect links an individual
has with others comprising a social network. Al-
though ways of measuring network centrality have
differed depending on the theoretical focus, all per-
tain to interpersonal ties, making network central-
ity relational by definition (Brass, 1995). Individu-
als with high centrality are more connected with
others in their organizations, implying greater in-
volvement in assistance exchanges with coworkers,
whether the purpose is work-related or more per-
sonal. Central individuals may also become valued
as sources of future assistance (Sparrowe, Liden,
Wayne, & Kraimer, 2001), underscoring their long-
er-term importance to the organizations and to the
members with whom they interact.

Some previous studies have examined social net-

works and organizational turnover, but more in
terms of structural rather than relational dynamics
(e.g., Krackhardt & Porter, 1986). Recently, re-
searchers have begun to underscore how employee
ties may affect their attachment to an organization.
For example, Kahn (1998) argued that relationships
at work reflect not only necessary task-related
links, but a system of deeper attachments that serve
collective emotional needs. To the degree that in-
dividuals lack a supportive system of relationships,
they may become emotionally disengaged, with-
draw psychologically then physically from cowork-
ers, and eventually leave the organization itself.

A recent study by Burt (2001) suggested connec-

tions between individuals and an organization are
influenced by the degree of embedding they expe-
rience. Individuals having a higher number of ties
to others affiliated with an organization are more
embedded and deem the organization to be of
greater importance to them. Burt (2001) found that
the degree of embedding inhibited the decay of
individuals’ organizational attachment. His results
were consistent with an earlier study by McPher-
son, Popielarz, and Drobnic (1992) that showed
more contacts in a social network led to longer
membership duration; more ties meant less
turnover.

Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez’s

(2001) study examining a newly proposed organi-
zational attachment construct, job embeddedness,
partially supports Burt’s (2001) and McPherson
and colleagues (1992) findings. Job embeddedness
predicted voluntary turnover in two organizations.
“Links-to-the-organization,” one of six components
comprising job embeddedness, gauged personal
connections among employees. This component it-
self correlated with turnover in one of the two
organizations, partly corroborating the connection
between turnover and relational ties. Lankau and
Scandura’s (2002) study yielded additional indirect

support regarding social embedding effects. They
found that relational job learning, which measures
the degree to which individuals learn about their
connectedness to other employees, was correlated
negatively with employees’ “turnover intentions”
(intentions to leave). In sum, theoretical and empir-
ical research suggests that embeddedness and
strong relational ties, as reflected by high network
centrality, should inhibit attachment decay and re-
duce

withdrawal

tendencies.

Therefore,

hypothesize:

Hypothesis 1. Network centrality is negatively
related to turnover.

Perceived coworker support. In work contexts,

social support refers to the care and consideration
that individuals receive from other organization
members. In the present study, coworker support
was considered as originating from interactions
with others at the same organizational level. Facets
of social support have long been considered as
potentially reducing individuals’ withdrawal in-
tentions (e.g., Price & Mueller, 1986). However,
only two studies investigating direct associations
between coworker support and turnover could be
found. Iverson and Pullman (2000) determined that
coworker support predicted whether employees
would be laid off, but not whether they would
voluntarily leave their organization. Iverson (1999)
suggested that coworker support would reduce
turnover because employees could rely on cowork-
ers as work became difficult, but he found no evi-
dence of this effect.

These results are somewhat surprising given that

organizational support theory research (Rhoades &
Eisenberger, 2002) has widely indicated that per-
ceived support from organizations and their agents
is negatively related with withdrawal behavior.
The theoretical rationale for this finding is that
demonstrations of care and consideration engender
emotional bonds between individuals and the
sources of support. This bonding creates feelings of
social integration and identification that increase
individuals’ attachment to the support sources.
Logically, the association between coworker sup-
port and turnover should parallel that found with
other types of support. Work-based social support
is usually extended by proximal individuals, and
thus exchanges of support should reverberate
among coworkers, strengthening interpersonal
bonds and attenuating shocks that encourage with-
drawal behavior. In sum, employees who are the
object of coworkers’ caring and concern increase
their direct attachment to such coworkers, and
through them, indirect attachment to their organi-
zation. Thus, we hypothesize:

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Hypothesis 2. Perceived coworker support is
negatively related to turnover.

Felt obligation toward coworkers. Social ex-

change theory (Blau, 1964) suggests individuals re-
ceiving social wares develop feelings of obligation
toward those supplying such wares and seek to
discharge those obligations through increased alle-
giance and extra performance efforts. Viewed as a
prescriptive belief that one should care about an-
other’s well-being (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002),
felt obligation underlies the give-and-take among
coworkers in exchange relationships. Sherony and
Green (2002) offered that it is an important ingre-
dient in high-quality coworker relations. Felt obli-
gation propels social relations because benefits ex-
tended owing to obligations create feelings of
investment and encourage individuals to work at
preserving this incipient social capital. Because
bonds built between relational partners are rela-
tively durable, feelings of obligation may continue
to influence relational ties after initial social wares
have been requited.

Potential relations between felt obligation and

turnover have only recently begun to be examined.
As part of a study investigating reciprocation of
perceived organizational support, Eisenberger,
Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, and Rhoades (2001) as-
sessed relations between felt obligation toward an
organization and employees’ withdrawal behavior.
Felt obligation exhibited a significant, negative cor-
relation with withdrawal behavior but did not exert
a significant effect in the context of their multivar-
iate model. Although they may not exert a strong
effect at a given juncture, felt obligations toward
coworkers could elicit longer-term reciprocity in
interpersonal exchanges, which would encourage
closer relationships and greater interpersonal em-
beddedness. Given these expected relational ef-
fects, we hypothesize:

Hypothesis 3. Felt obligation toward coworkers
is negatively related to turnover.

Interpersonal citizenship behavior. Interper-

sonal citizenship behavior refers to citizenship be-
havior directed toward coworkers and immediate
others and focuses on cooperative assistance for
individuals in need (Settoon & Mossholder, 2002).
From a relational perspective, behavior performed
to benefit coworkers indicates the depth of feeling
for and connection with others in an organization.
This is especially so because interpersonal citizen-
ship behavior occurs at individuals’ discretion;
those who go out of their way to help coworkers are
actively demonstrating an allegiance to them. Help-
ing behavior may evoke positive emotions from

both parties involved in help exchanges, reinforc-
ing perceptions of mutual obligation. When it is
carried out to display the quality of ties with co-
workers, interpersonal citizenship behavior may be
largely noninstrumental because it is not intended
to assist with specific tasks.

Individuals may also engage in interpersonal cit-

izenship behavior for instrumental reasons, such as
to help coworkers complete tasks or gain organiza-
tional status. Such actions could influence individ-
uals’ leaving their organizations in the future. If
individuals view their interpersonal citizenship be-
havior as an investment that increases their value
to an organization and profession, they will be
more likely to stay and reap potentially ensuing
rewards (Chen, Hui, & Sego, 1998). Thus, when
interpreted as an integrative work process, helping
becomes a means of displaying behaviors that
could have desirable outcomes. For example, in an
engineering firm where helping was considered as
a communal good and a learning opportunity, in-
dividuals perceived that it benefited other employ-
ees, the organization, and their own careers (Perlow
& Weeks, 2002). As with other relational variables
examined in this study, interpersonal citizenship
behavior and related constructs have not been fre-
quently considered in connection with turnover. In
their study, Chen and colleagues (1998) found that
altruism, an interpersonal helping facet of organi-
zational citizenship behavior, correlated negatively
with turnover measured ten months later. Else-
where, Aryee and Chay (2001) showed that citizen-
ship behavior oriented toward helping individuals
negatively correlated with turnover intentions in a
union context. We thus hypothesize:

Hypothesis 4. Interpersonal citizenship behav-
ior is negatively related to turnover.

METHODS

Sample Characteristics

Some of the data used in the present study were

collected as part of a larger study (Settoon & Moss-
holder, 2002) focusing on precursors of interper-
sonal citizenship behavior; coworker support and
network centrality were examined in this capacity.
Nearly five years after the initial data collection, we
obtained permission to revisit a data collection site
and gather information on turnover in order to ex-
amine whether salient relational variables pre-
dicted turnover.

Study participants were employed at a regional

medical center in the southern United States. The
service-oriented work they performed required
much communication and coordination among em-

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ployees, providing a context where relational de-
pendencies and accompanying attitudes and be-
haviors could surface. We used an employee survey
to collect information on key study variables, so-
ciometric relations, and demographics. A separate
survey was used to gather supervisory evaluations
of employees’ interpersonal citizenship behavior.
Employees were asked to provide the last five digits
of their employee identification numbers so that
their surveys could be matched with supervisors’
surveys. Participants were informed that their re-
sponses were known only by the researchers and
would be kept confidential. Both supervisory and
nonsupervisory employees received surveys along
with postage-paid return envelopes, which they
were to put in a collection bin in the administrative
offices or mail directly to us.

A total of 374 surveys were distributed, and 253

were returned. Of these, 38 surveys could not be
used owing to either missing employee identifica-
tion numbers or lack of matching supervisor sur-
veys; 215 surveys were usable, giving us a 58 per-
cent response rate. There were no differences
between the usable and unusable survey groups on
tenure, gender, race, or education, but the average
age in the unusable group was nearly five years
lower (p

⬍ .05). Given that tenure is the most mean-

ingful demographic predictor of turnover (Griffeth
et al., 2000), along with the absence of other demo-
graphic differences, the potential for response bias
was judged as minimal. Human resources person-
nel helped to determine those employees whose
departures from the firm were involuntary (e.g.,
dismissals), and these cases were eliminated from
consideration. This constraint and missing data on
other study variables reduced the sample to 176
individuals. Of these 176 respondents, 78 percent
were women, 72 percent were Caucasian, and 27
percent were African American. Average respon-
dent age was 37.43 years, and average organization-
al tenure was 5.04 years.

Measures

Predictor variables. Three survey formats were

used: (1) Likert-type scales ranging from 1,
“strongly disagree,” to 5, “strongly agree,” (2) so-
ciometric questions, and (3) demographic ques-
tions. Employees self-reported data on all variables
with the exception of interpersonal citizenship be-
havior, for which supervisors provided data, and
network centrality, which was measured on the
basis of coworker responses. As appropriate, we
averaged responses to items to create the scales.
The texts of all scale items and sociometric ques-
tions appear in the Appendix.

Adopting a relational cohesion approach (Brass,

1995), we constructed a network centrality index as
per Ibarra (1993) by having respondents list up to
five employees (1) with whom they discussed what
was going on in the organization and (2) whom they
approached concerning work-related problems or
decisions. From these responses, we calculated “in-
degree centrality” within the organization’s com-
munication and advice networks, respectively: the
more coworkers choosing a focal employee, the
greater was that employee’s in-degree centrality.
Assessing centrality for these two networks al-
lowed consideration of interconnections having so-
cial (communication) as well as more work-related
(advice) connotations. As research has shown that
measures of centrality across networks are highly
correlated (r

⫽ .78 in the present study), we com-

bined the in-degree centrality indexes for the two
networks to form an overall measure.

We developed a measure of perceived coworker

support (

␣ ⫽ .82) based on Eisenberger, Hunting-

ton, Hutchison, and Sowa’s (1986) perceived organ-
izational support scale. From their measure, we
selected the six “highest-loading” items gauging
support and reworded them so that the referent was
the responding employee’s coworkers. Developed
for the present study, the felt obligation toward
coworkers measure had three items that reflected
psychological feelings of indebtedness toward co-
workers. Because these items were written for the
present study, we also assessed and found a coef-
ficient alpha of .74 for them using an independent
sample of 58 employees in an auxiliary services
organization. Coefficient alpha in the hospital sam-
ple was .67, despite an average item intercorrela-
tion of .40. As this circumstance may reflect scale
length rather than a lack of internal consistency
(see Cortina, 1993), we decided to retain this mea-
sure. Finally, we used a previously developed mea-
sure (Settoon & Mossholder, 2002) to assess inter-
personal citizenship behavior (

␣ ⫽ .96). Eight of 14

items assessed passive support provided to others,
and 6 measured active assistance to those in need.
Although interpersonal citizenship behavior has
been examined previously as comprising two fac-
ets, the thrust of the present study was the predic-
tive power of interpersonal citizenship behavior
overall. Therefore, we collapsed all of the items to
form one scale.

Criterion variable. The effects of relational vari-

ables on turnover may surface more slowly than
those of other types of variables (e.g., economic
conditions) because relationships are less formally
determined aspects of work and require time to
develop. At least two studies have employed a five-
year survival window in examining socially ori-

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Mossholder, Settoon, and Henagan

ented variables’ impacts on turnover (e.g., Iverson
& Pullman, 2000; O’Reilly, Caldwell, & Barnett,
1989). Also, Sheridan (1985) noted that most vol-
untary turnover on nursing staffs occurs within 60
months. Nearly five years after the initial survey, in
keeping with Griffeth et al.’s (2000) recommenda-
tion to use a time frame appropriate for the turn-
over context, human resources personnel were
asked to provide turnover data on the 215 individ-
uals for whom identification information and inter-
personal citizenship behavior ratings were avail-
able. Their employment status was verified, and
separation dates for those no longer employed pro-
vided. We measured the survival window in
months. We considered voluntary turnover to have
occurred when employees left despite having an
opportunity to continue with the organization
(Maertz & Campion, 1998), and the codings were 0
for “stayed” and 1 for “left.”

Control variables. Organizational tenure and

age, measured in years, were controlled as both
have been found to correlate with turnover (Grif-
feth et al., 2000). Additionally, researchers exam-
ining health care samples (e.g., Iverson & Pullman,
2000) have suggested that gender be controlled as
women are overrepresented in such contexts. Gen-
der was coded “male,” 0, and “female,” 1. Finally,
we used a four-item general job satisfaction mea-
sure (

␣ ⫽ .79) as a control because job satisfaction

has been consistently associated with turnover
(Griffeth et al., 2000). This measure comprised two
items from the Michigan Organizational Assess-
ment Questionnaire (Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins,
& Klesh, 1983) and two items from Brayfield and
Rothe’s (1951) index. Controlling job satisfaction
helped assure that relations between turnover and
correlates of satisfaction with work, such as age and
tenure, were not confounded.

Analyses

Because relationships are established through re-

peated interactions with others, relational variables
may exert their influence gradually in connection
with turnover rather than at a single point in time.
Survival analysis techniques incorporate time-
based dynamics befitting relational variables and
are well suited to modeling such processes. Sur-
vival analysis methods assess turnover in terms of
the conditional probability of a member’s leaving
an organization; this probability varies with the
duration of organizational membership. Several re-
searchers have noted the general advantages and
increasing use of survival analysis on turnover data
(e.g., Harrison, 2002).

We analyzed data using a proportional hazards

survival analysis approach, Cox regression analy-
sis. The proportional hazards assumption of Cox
regression requires that the effect of a predictor
variable does not change over time. In other words,
no interaction between time and the predictor
should be observed. One means of testing this as-
sumption is to add time-by-predictor interaction
terms to an equation already containing predictor
“main effect” terms (Harrison, 2002). We created
the necessary interaction terms and tested them for
significance following standard procedures (see
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). None of the interaction
terms were significant, and thus the assumption
was met. Moreover, for each predictor, we plotted
Schoenfeld residuals against time. These residuals
were distributed fairly evenly in a band around
zero for all predictors, providing visual confirma-
tion of the proportional hazards assumption (Hess,
1995).

RESULTS

A confirmatory factor analysis involving the per-

ceptual (perceived coworker support, felt obliga-
tion toward coworkers), attitudinal (job satisfac-
tion), and behavioral (interpersonal citizenship
behavior) measures was conducted as a means of
assessing their viability as separate constructs. To
increase indicator stability (West, Finch, & Curran,
1995) and meet sample size guidelines for param-
eter estimation, we employed the single-factor
method (Landis, Beal, & Tesluk, 2000) to form a
reduced set of indicators for each latent variable
(excepting felt obligation, which comprised only
three indicators). This procedure reduced the num-
ber of indicators per latent variable to three (for
coworker support and job satisfaction) or four (for
interpersonal citizenship behavior). The compara-
tive fit index (CFI), root-mean-square error of ap-
proximation (RMSEA), and standardized root-
mean-square residual (SRMR) were used in judging
fit. Utilizing LISREL 8, we tested a model with four
latent variables. All indicators loaded significantly
on their respective latent variables. The resultant
indexes suggested an acceptable level of fit (CFI

⫽

.99, RMSEA

⫽. 04, and SRMR ⫽ .05).

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for study

variables, along with correlations among the vari-
ables. As would be expected, the correlation be-
tween age and tenure was moderately strong. Also,
coworker support and felt obligation toward co-
workers were significantly correlated, corroborat-
ing the idea that perceived support from coworkers
may engender feelings of social indebtedness. Most
of the remaining correlations were relatively low,

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Academy of Management Journal

indicating a degree of empirical differentiation
among the variables.

Figure 1 shows plots of the estimated survival

and hazard functions. Both functions exhibit a con-
sistent linear trend throughout most of the study
time frame. Toward the final months of the study,
slight plateauing occurs for both functions. Table 2
reports results of the Cox regression analyses. We
used likelihood ratio tests to examine the effects of
entering control and predictor variable blocks into
the model, and Wald statistics to determine
whether individual variables were statistically sig-
nificant. In the first step, only the control variables
were entered into the regression equation. A likeli-
hood ratio test indicated there was not a significant
(p

⬎ .05) change in model fit. Addition of the

relational variables as a set in the second step of the
analysis resulted in a significant chi-square change
in fit (

⌬

␹

⫽ 15.97, df ⫽ 4, p ⫽ .003).

Examining the regression coefficients with all the

variables entered into the model, one can see that a
negative association between job satisfaction and
turnover was marginally significant (p

⫽ .06). As

for the relational variables in the full model, Table
2 shows that both network centrality (p

⬍ .01) and

interpersonal citizenship behavior (p

⬍ .05) were

significantly associated with turnover. Coworker
support and felt obligation toward coworkers did
not predict turnover. We computed pseudo-R

(Harrison, 2002) to show the relative improvement
in the association between survival and each sig-
nificant predictor, adjusting for all other predictors.
Adding network centrality to a model containing
all other study variables increased this statistic by
.04, whereas adding interpersonal citizenship be-
havior to a model containing all other study vari-
ables increased pseudo-R

by .03. Table 2 also

shows pseudo-R

for the model containing controls

only and the model containing all the variables.

DISCUSSION

The turnover literature has been dominated by

research on how work attitudes, especially job sat-
isfaction, progress into turnover. Although this re-
search stream has contributed much to the litera-
ture, there has been an increased interest in the role
that less traditional variables (e.g., nonwork) and
precipitating shocks play in withdrawal processes
(Mitchell & Lee, 2001). The present study repre-
sents an initial attempt to determine whether rela-
tional variables—specifically, network centrality,
perceived coworker support, felt obligation toward
coworkers, and interpersonal citizenship behav-
ior— can contribute in this regard.

Both network centrality and interpersonal citi-

zenship behavior were significantly related to turn-
over over the five-year study window, and their
effects went above and beyond the effects of job
satisfaction. Regarding network centrality, it ap-
pears that how individuals are interconnected af-
fects their leaving an organization. Those forming a
greater number of ties with coworkers become more
embedded and more likely to identify with those
around them (Burt, 2001). Such social grounding
dampens the effect of real or perceived shocks that
may give rise to turnover. Close identification with
others is often associated with perceived similarity
and more frequent communication, which in turn
may reduce the likelihood of turnover (Brass,
1995). Interestingly, felt obligation toward cowork-
ers was negatively correlated with network central-
ity. Providing others with advice and communica-
tion may lead highly central individuals to feel

TABLE 1

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among the Variables

Variable

Mean

s.d.

1. Organizational tenure

5.04

5.56

2. Gender

0.78

0.41

⫺.06

3. Age

37.43

10.59

.43**

.00

4. Job satisfaction

4.17

0.56

.04

⫺.10

.12

5. Interpersonal citizenship behavior

3.84

0.74

.02

.16*

⫺.04

⫺.07

6. Coworker support

3.69

0.61

.02

.04

.01

.24**

.14

†

7. Felt obligation toward coworkers

2.73

0.95

⫺.09

⫺.01

.11

.06

.00

.28**

8. Network centrality

1.54

1.51

.15*

⫺.12

.01

.06

.10

⫺.01

⫺.18*

9. Turnover

0.36

0.48

⫺.15*

.02

⫺.14

†

⫺.13

†

⫺.13

†

.04

.08

⫺.22**

⫽ 176.

Indicates the turnover rate for the sample after five years.

†

⬍ .10

⬍ .05

**p

⬍ .01

2005

613

Mossholder, Settoon, and Henagan

they have discharged their personal obligations to
coworkers, and it may indirectly indicate their
awareness of the social investments they have
made.

The association between interpersonal citizen-

ship behavior and turnover is intriguing because
interpersonal citizenship behavior is directed at
coworkers rather than an organization. How indi-
viduals interact with coworkers—in this case, help-
ing them—may presage turnover tendencies and
represent a relational manifestation of their organ-
izational attachment. Relationship quality has been
found to be positively associated with both helping
and help seeking (Anderson & Williams, 1996), in-

timating that relational exchanges may benefit both
partners. Thus, interpersonal citizenship behavior
can be viewed as a social workplace investment
that improves the lot of those receiving help while
increasing the chances that help giving will be re-
ciprocated in the future. Alternatively, individuals
who have doubts about remaining with an organi-
zation or who are actively contemplating leaving
may be less likely to help coworkers, knowing that
their own exits will nullify future return benefits.

The positive correlation between coworker sup-

port and felt obligation toward coworkers suggests
that receiving social wares may stimulate a need to
reciprocate. However, the hypothesized relations of

FIGURE 1

Estimated Survival and Hazard Functions

614

August

Academy of Management Journal

these two perceptual predictors with turnover did
not emerge. One reason for this may be that the
five-year period between initial measurement and
turnover in the current study is longer than the
in-between period of typical turnover studies (see
Griffeth et al., 2000), and perceptual variables may
not be suited to such lengthy time frames. Also,
researchers have noted that even when predictive,
perceptual variables tend to exhibit modest effect
sizes in connection with turnover.

This study provides direct support for the idea

that relationships matter, and it corroborates con-
tentions (e.g., Bolino et al., 2002; Uhl-Bien et al.,
2000) that their development influences important
organizational outcomes. Of course, it should be
noted that the relational variables examined in our
study represent only one of eight motive categories
that drive employees’ decisions about whether to
remain organization members. Future research in-
volving relational variables should include vari-
ables representing other motive categories, espe-
cially ones that have been investigated in previous
studies (e.g., affective, alternative, or behavioral
forces; see Maertz and Griffeth [2004]). Including
other categories would better gauge the predictive
strength of relational variables against that of more
traditional turnover predictors, such as organiza-
tional attitudes (e.g., affective organizational com-
mitment), external environmental factors (e.g., per-
ceived work alternatives), and behavioral correlates
(e.g., absences). A recent study suggests that some
relational constructs (e.g., on-the-job-embedded-
ness; Lee, Mitchell, Sablynski, Burton, and Holtom

[2004]) may share explanatory variance with tradi-
tional attitudinal variables (i.e., job satisfaction, or-
ganizational commitment) in predicting turnover.
Others have noted that job satisfaction is a key
variable in predicting turnover (Mueller, Boyer,
Price, & Iverson, 1994). Having assessed job satis-
faction in our study, we were able to control for its
effects. Unfortunately, because of constraints on
survey length, information on other traditional
turnover predictors could not be included. Such
variables should be incorporated in future studies
investigating relational predictors of turnover.

It may also be instructive to examine explicitly

relational variables in conjunction with more dif-
fuse group-level processes that have been investi-
gated in past research. For example, group cohe-
sion has been found to correlate negatively with
withdrawal phenomena (see Griffeth et al., 2000;
O’Reilly et al., 1989; Sheridan, 1985), and it is a
global reflection of the degree of individuals’ attrac-
tion to a group. As noted above, although group-
level processes are not considered to be explicitly
relational, they have a theoretical kinship with re-
lational variables. Including such variables in fu-
ture studies would represent a logical extension of
the present study.

Some caveats should be mentioned regarding our

findings. First, the data were collected in a health
care context, a type of work setting that is in some
respects more oriented toward relationships than
are other work settings. Replication in a variety of
other organizations is needed, as relational vari-
ables may operate differently in other types of con-

TABLE 2

Results of Cox Regression Analyses

Predictors

Step 1

Step 2

s.e.

Organizational tenure

⫺0.05

0.03

0.95

⫺0.04

0.04

0.96

Gender

0.00

0.32

1.00

⫺0.03

0.33

0.97

Age

⫺0.01

0.01

0.99

⫺0.02

0.01

0.98

Job satisfaction

⫺0.30

0.20

0.74

⫺0.43

†

0.23

0.65

Controls-only pseudo-R

.04

Network centrality

⫺0.29**

0.11

0.75

Coworker support

0.31

0.24

1.36

Felt obligation toward coworkers

0.02

0.14

1.02

Interpersonal citizenship behavior

⫺0.40*

0.17

0.68

Full-model pseudo-R

.13

Unstandardized regression coefficients, standard errors, and exponentiated regression coefficients are shown.

†

⬍ .10

* p

⬍ .05

** p

⬍ .01

2005

615

Mossholder, Settoon, and Henagan

texts. For example, some researchers have found
that in industries where turnover is very high (fast-
food restaurants), strong ties may exacerbate turnover
among employees with similar roles (see Krackhardt
& Porter, 1986). Second, our study was retrodictive,
in that it did not begin with a cohort of new employ-
ees whose survival rates were tracked going forward.
As such, it is not a survival study in the purest sense.
Third, some of the measures were based on existing
scales as opposed to being developed specifically for
the study. Closer consideration of measures focusing
on relational constructs is needed in the future.

We suggest that relational predictors may contain

unique information about withdrawal and hold
promise for solving another piece of the turnover
puzzle. Our results suggest that when researchers
study withdrawal phenomena, interpersonal rela-
tionships may be critical to consider along with the
more typically emphasized person characteristics.
Managing turnover through relational variables
will require new and innovative approaches.
Rather than simply focusing on individuals to
thwart turnover, organizations may benefit from
considering broader circumstances, such as how
embeddedness

may

protect

individuals

from

events that function as turnover-inducing shocks.
Taking steps to fortify the broader relational cli-
mate could involve programmatic actions aimed at
preventing both physical and emotional disengage-
ment at work (Kahn, 1998). Such strengthening
may not only retard turnover, but may also develop
relational social capital that could improve organ-
ization-wide productivity (Dess & Shaw, 2001).
Systematic efforts should be directed at developing
links among individuals, an idea congruent with the
growing emphasis on personal learning in organiza-
tions (cf. Lankau & Scandura, 2002). A key facet of
what individuals learn as organization members may
be how they are interconnected and can work with
others to develop their own skills and careers.

For some time, researchers have proposed that

“the people make the place” (e.g., Schneider, 1987).
We further suggest that relational ties people form
while working together may be the ties that bind.
Greater attention to relational systems and behav-
iors that strengthen interpersonal ties may inform
organizations’ efforts to reduce undesired turnover
and improve overall effectiveness. Hopefully, the
present study will encourage future research efforts
having these goals.

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APPENDIX

Items for Study Measures

Items and instructions are given verbatim.

Felt Obligation toward Coworkers

I often feel like I owe my coworkers.
My coworkers have done things for me that I feel I

should repay them for.

Sometimes I do favors for my coworkers because I feel

I am obligated to.

Perceived Coworker Support

My coworkers really care about my well-being.
My coworkers are willing to extend themselves in

order to help me perform my job the best I can.

Even if I did the best job possible, my coworkers would

fail to notice. (reverse-scored)

My coworkers care about my general satisfaction at

work.

My coworkers show very little concern for me.

(reverse-scored)

My coworkers care about my opinions.

Job Satisfaction

All in all, I am satisfied with my job.
In general, I like working here.
I like my job better than the average worker does.
I am satisfied with my job for the time being.

Interpersonal Citizenship Behaviors

This employee. . .

Takes time to listen to coworkers’ problems and wor-

ries.

Takes a personal interest in coworkers.
Always goes out of the way to make newer employees

feel welcome in the work group.

Shows genuine concern and courtesy toward cowork-

ers, even under the most trying business or personal
situations.

Compliments coworkers when they succeed at work.
Tries to cheer up coworkers who are having a bad day.
Makes an extra effort to understand the problems faced

by coworkers.

Listens to coworkers when they have to get something

off their chest.

Helps coworkers with work when they have been ab-

sent.

Helps coworkers with difficult assignments, even

when assistance is not directly requested.

Assists coworkers with heavy workloads, even though

it is not part of his/her job.

Goes out of his/her way to help coworkers with work-