44 ESL Pointers
This section covers rules that most native speakers of English take for granted but that are useful for speakers of English as a second language (ESL).
Articles
An article is a noun marker—it signals that a noun will follow. There are two kinds of articles: indefinite and definite. The indefinite articles are a and an. Use a before a word that begins with a consonant sound:
a carrot, a pig, a uniform
(A is used before uniform because the u in that word sounds like the consonant y plus u, not a vowel sound.)
Use an before a word beginning with a vowel sound:
an excuse, an onion, an honor
(Honor begins with a vowel because the h is silent.)
The definite article is the.
the lemon, the fan
An article may come right before a noun:
a circle, the summer
Or an article may be separated from the noun by words that describe the noun:
a large circle, the long hot summer.
Note: There are various other noun markers, including quantity words (a few, many, a lot of), numerals (one, ten, 120), demonstrative adjectives (this, these), adjectives (my, your, our), and possessive nouns (Vinh's, the school's).
Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns
To know whether to use an article with a noun and which article to use, you must recognize count and noncount nouns. (A noun is a word used to name something—a person, place, thing, or idea.)
Count nouns name people, places, things, or ideas that can be counted and made into plurals, such as window, table, and principal (one window, two tables, three principals).
Noncount nouns refer to things or ideas that cannot be counted and therefore cannot be made into plurals, such as weather, anger, and happiness. The box below lists and illustrates common types of noncount nouns.
Common Noncount Nouns
Abstractions and emotions: joy, humor, patience, mercy, curiosity
Activities: soccer, gardening, reading, writing, searching
Foods: sugar, spaghetti, fudge, chicken, lettuce
Gases and vapors: air, nitrogen, oxygen, smoke, steam
Languages and areas of study: Laotian, German, social studies, calculus, biology
Liquids: coffee, gasoline, soda, milk, water
Materials that come in bulk or mass form: lumber, soil, dust, detergent, hay
Natural occurrences: gravity, hail, snow, thunder, rust
Other things that cannot be counted: clothing, furniture, homework, machinery, money, news, transportation, vocabulary, work
The quantity of a noncount noun can be expressed with a word or words called a qualifier, such as some, more, a unit of, and so on. In the following two examples, the qualifiers are shown in italic type, and the noncount nouns are shown in boldface type.
I hear a little anger in your voice.
The pea soup had gotten thick overnight, so Kala added more water to it.
Some words can be either count or noncount nouns, depending on whether they refer to one or more individual items or to something in general:
The yearly rains in India are called monsoons.
(This sentence refers to individual rains; rains in this case is a count noun.)
Rain is something that farmers cannot live without.
(This sentence refers to rain in general; in this case, rain is a noncount noun.)
Using a or an with Nonspecific Singular Count Nouns
Use a or an with singular nouns that are nonspecific. A noun is nonspecific when the reader doesn't know its specific identity.
A penguin cannot fly; it uses its “wings” to “fly” through the water.
(The sentence refers to any penguin, not a specific one.)
There was a fire today in our neighborhood.
(The reader isn't familiar with the fire. This is the first time it is mentioned.)
Using the with Specific Nouns
In general, use the with all specific nouns—specific singular, plural, and noncount nouns. A noun is specific—and therefore requires the article the—in the following cases:
• When it has already been mentioned once
There was a fire today in our neighborhood. The fire destroyed the Smiths' garage.
(The is used with the second mention of fire.)
• When it is identified by a word or phrase in the sentence
The lights in the bathroom do not work.
(Lights is identified by the words in the bathroom.)
• When its identity is suggested by the general context
The coffee at Billy's Diner always tastes a week old.
(Coffee is identified by the words at Billy's Diner.)
• When it is unique
Scientists warn that there is a growing hole in the ozone layer.
(Earth has only one ozone layer.)
• When it comes after a superlative adjective (best, biggest, wisest)
Many of the best distance runners come from East Africa.
Omitting Articles
Omit articles with nonspecific plurals and nonspecific noncount nouns. Plurals and noncount nouns are nonspecific when they refer to something in general.
Lights were on all over the empty house.
Coffee should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer if possible.
Runners from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania often win world-class races.
Using the with Proper Nouns
Proper nouns name particular people, places, things, or ideas and are always capitalized. Most proper nouns do not require articles; those that do, however, require the. Following are general guidelines about when and when not to use the.
Do not use the for most singular proper nouns, including names of the following:
• People and animals (Rosa Parks, Skipper)
• Continents, states, cities, streets, and parks (Asia, North Dakota, San Diego, Rodeo Boulevard, Fairmount Park)
• Most countries (Thailand, Argentina, England)
• Individual bodies of water, islands, and mountains (Lake Tahoe, Prince Edward Island, Mount Saint Helens)
Use the for the following types of proper nouns:
• Plural proper nouns (the Jacksons, the United Arab Emirates, the Great Lakes, the Appalachian Mountains)
• Names of large geographic areas, deserts, oceans, seas, and rivers (the Northeast, the Gobi Desert, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Thames River)
• Names with the format “the ________ of ________” (the king of Sweden, the Gulf of Aden, the University of New Hampshire)
Activity
Underline the correct form of the noun in parentheses.
1. (A telephone, Telephone) is found in almost every American home.
2. Today Kim bought (a used car, the used car).
3. (The car, A car) Kim bought is four years old but in very good condition.
4. Thick (fog, fogs) blocked the plane's approach to the airport.
5. My grandparents and cousins all live in (New Jersey, the New Jersey).
6. Adults should have (patience, the patience) when dealing with children.
7. (Indian Ocean, The Indian Ocean) lies between the east coast of Africa and the west coast of Australia.
8. Cats are known for having a great deal of (curiosity, the curiosity).
9. Through the ages, (wine, the wine) has been made out of many fruits other than grapes, such as apples and blueberries.
10. (Water, The water) in the barrel outside is for watering the vegetable garden.
Subjects and Verbs
Avoiding Repeated Subjects
In English, a particular subject can be used only once in a word group with a subject and a verb. Don't repeat a subject in the same word group by following a noun with a pronoun.
Incorrect: My friend she is a wonderful cook.
Correct: My friend is a wonderful cook.
Correct: She is a wonderful cook.
Even when the subject and verb are separated by several words, the subject cannot be repeated in the same word group.
Incorrect: The flowers that are blooming in the yard they are called snapdragons.
Correct: The flowers that are blooming in the yard are called snapdragons.
Including Pronoun Subjects and Linking Verbs
Some languages may omit a pronoun as a subject, but in English, every sentence other than a command must have a subject. (In a command, the subject you is understood: [You] Hand in your papers now.)
Incorrect: The party was a success. Was lots of fun.
Correct: The party was a success. It was lots of fun.
Every English sentence must also have a verb, even when the meaning of the sentence is clear without the verb.
Incorrect: Rosa's handwriting very neat.
Correct: Rosa's handwriting is very neat.
Including There and Here at the Beginning of Sentences
Some English sentences begin with there or here plus a linking verb (usually a form of to be: is, are, and so on). In such sentences, the verb comes before the subject.
There are oranges in the refrigerator.
(The subject is the plural noun oranges, so the plural verb are is used.)
Here is the book you wanted.
(The subject is the singular noun book, so the singular verb is is used.)
In sentences like those above, remember not to omit there or here.
Incorrect: Are many good reasons to quit smoking.
Correct: There are many good reasons to quit smoking.
Not Using the Progressive Tense of Certain Verbs
The progressive tenses are made up of forms of be plus the -ing form of the main verb. They express actions or conditions still in progress at a particular time.
Iris will be running for student-body president this year.
However, verbs for mental states, the senses, possession, and inclusion are normally not used in the progressive tense.
Incorrect: I am loving chocolate.
Correct: I love chocolate.
Incorrect: Sonia is having a lovely singing voice.
Correct: Sonia has a lovely singing voice.
Common verbs not generally used in the progressive tense are listed in the box below.
Common Verbs Not Generally Used in the Progressive
Thoughts, attitudes and desires: agree, believe, imagine, know, like, love, prefer, think, understand, want, wish
Sense perceptions: hear, see, smell, taste
Appearances: appear, seem, look
Possession: belong, have, own, possess
Inclusion: contain, include
Using Gerunds and Infinitives after Verbs
A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that is used as a noun:
Complaining is my cousin's favorite activity.
(Complaining is the subject of the sentence.)
An infinitive is to plus the basic form of the verb (the form in which the verb is listed in the dictionary), as in to eat. The infinitive can function as an adverb, an adjective, or a noun.
We decided to eat dinner on the porch.
(To eat dinner on the porch functions as an adverb that describes the verb decided.)
Simon built a shelf to hold his compact disk collection.
(To hold his compact disk collection functions as an adjective describing the noun shelf.)
To have good friends is a blessing.
(To have good friends functions as a noun—the subject of the verb is.)
Some verbs can be followed by only a gerund or only an infinitive; other verbs can be followed by either. Examples are given in the following lists. There are many others; watch for them in your reading.
Verb + gerund (dislike + studying)
Verb + preposition + gerund (insist + on + paying)
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund but not by an infinitive. In many cases, there is a preposition (such as for, in, or of) between the verb and the gerund. Following are some verbs and verb-preposition combinations that can be followed by gerunds but not by infinitives:
admit deny look forward to
apologize for discuss postpone
appreciate dislike practice
approve of enjoy suspect of
avoid feel like talk about
be used to finish thank for
believe in insist on think about
Incorrect: Sometimes I enjoy to eat by myself in a restaurant.
Correct: Sometimes I enjoy eating by myself in a restaurant.
Incorrect: Do you feel like to dance?
Correct: Do you feel like dancing?
Verb + infinitive (agree + to leave)
Following are common verbs that can be followed by an infinitive but not by a gerund:
agree decide manage
arrange expect refuse
claim have wait
Incorrect: I agreed taking Grandma shopping this afternoon.
Correct: I agreed to take Grandma shopping this afternoon.
Verb + noun or pronoun + infinitive (cause + them + to flee)
Below are common verbs that are first followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive, not a gerund.
cause force remind
command persuade warn
Incorrect: The queen commanded the prince obeying.
Correct: The queen commanded the prince to obey.
Following are common verbs that can be followed either by an infinitive alone or by a noun or pronoun and an infinitive:
ask need want
expect promise would like
Jerry would like to join the army.
Jerry's parents would like him to go to college.
Verb + gerund or infinitive (begin + packing or begin + to pack)
Following are verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive:
begin hate prefer
continue love start
The meaning of each of the verbs above remains the same or almost the same whether a gerund or an infinitive is used.
I prefer eating dinner early.
I prefer to eat dinner early.
With the verbs below, the gerunds and the infinitives have very different meanings.
forget remember stop
Nadia stopped to put on makeup.
(She interrupted something to put on makeup.)
Nadia stopped putting on makeup.
(She discontinued putting on makeup.)
Activity
Underline the correct form in parentheses.
1. The police officer (she gave, gave) me a ticket for speeding.
2. The telephone never stops ringing. (Is, It is) driving me crazy.
3. (Are paints and crayons, There are paints and crayons) in that cupboard.
4. That book (contains, is containing) photos of our wedding.
5. My midterm math grade persuaded me (getting, to get) a tutor.
6. After walking in the hot sun, we (very thirsty, were very thirsty).
7. The little girl (talked about to become, talked about becoming) a famous scientist.
8. Lucia (expects earning, expects to earn) a B in the class.
9. The pigeons on the sidewalk (pick up, they pick up) crumbs of food that people drop.
10. For lunch today I (want, am wanting) a big salad.
Adjectives
Following the Order of Adjectives in English
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. In English, an adjective usually comes directly before the word it describes or after a linking verb (a form of be or a “sense” verb such as look, seem and taste), in which case it modifies the subject. In each of the following two sentences, the adjective is boldfaced and the noun it describes is italicized.
That is a bright light.
That light is bright.
When more than one adjective modifies the same noun, the adjectives are usually stated in a certain order, though there are often exceptions. Following is the typical order of English adjectives:
Typical Order of Adjectives in a Series
1 An article or another noun marker: a, an, the, Joseph's, this, three, your
2 Opinion adjective: exciting, plain, annoying, difficult
3 Size: enormous, huge, petite, tiny
4 Shape: circular, short, round, square
5 Age: newborn, recent, old, new, young
6 Color: pink, yellow, orange, white
7 Nationality: Italian, Chinese, Guatemalan, Russian
8 Religion: Buddhist, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim
9 Material: plastic, silver, cement, cotton
10 Noun used as an adjective: school (as in school bus), closet (as in closet shelf), birthday (as in birthday party)
Here are some examples of the order of adjectives:
an interesting old story
the long orange cotton dress
your elderly Hungarian cousin
Rafael's friendly little black dog
In general, use no more than two or three adjectives after the article or other noun marker. Numerous adjectives in a series can be awkward: the lovely little old Methodist stone church.
Using the Present and Past Participles as Adjectives
The present participle ends in -ing. Past participles of regular verbs end in -ed or -d; a list of the past participles of many common irregular verbs appears on pages 411-413. Both types of participles may be used as adjectives. A participle used as an adjective may come before the word it describes:
It was a boring lecture.
A participle used as an adjective may also follow a linking verb and describe the subject of the sentence:
The lecture was boring.
While both present and past participles of a particular verb may be used as adjectives, their meanings differ. Use the present participle to describe whoever or whatever causes a feeling:
a surprising conversation
(The conversation caused the surprise.)
Use the past participle to describe whoever or whatever experiences the feeling:
the surprised waitress
(The waitress is surprised.)
Here are two more sentences that illustrate the differing meanings of present and past participles.
The mystery movie was frightening.
The audience was frightened.
(The movie caused the fear; the audience experienced the fear.)
Following are pairs of present and past participles with similar distinctions:
annoying / annoyed exhausting / exhausted
boring / bored fascinating / fascinated
confusing / confused tiring / tired
depressing / depressed surprising / surprised
exciting / excited
Activity
Underline the correct form in parentheses.
1. It was so windy that we had to use stones to hold down the (yellow big plastic, big yellow plastic) tablecloth on the picnic table.
2. At the party, Julie sang a(n) (Vietnamese old, old Vietnamese) song.
3. For her party, the little girl asked if her mother would buy her a (beautiful long velvet, beautiful velvet long) dress.
4. The long walk home from the supermarket left Mira feeling (exhausting, exhausted).
5. The constant barking of our neighbor's dog is very (annoying, annoyed).
Prepositions Used for Time and Place
In English, the use of prepositions is often not based on their common meanings, and there are many exceptions to general rules. As a result, correct use of prepositions must be learned gradually through experience. Following is a chart showing how three of the most common prepositions are used in some customary references to time and place:
Use of On, In, and At to Refer to Time and Place
Time
On a specific day: on Saturday, on June 12, on your birthday
In a part of a day: in the morning, in the daytime (but at night)
In a month or a year: in November, in 1492
In a period of time: in a minute, in a couple of days, in a while
At a specific time: at 10:00 a.m., at dawn, at sunset, at dinnertime
Place
On a surface: on the dresser, on the porch, on the roof
In a place that is enclosed: in my bedroom, in the hallway, in the drawer
At a specific location: at the pool, at the bar, at the racetrack
Activity
Underline the correct preposition in parentheses.
1. Your next appointment is (on, at) Tuesday.
2. Class begins (on, at) 9 a.m.
3. I love to relax (on, in) a whirlpool bathtub.
4. Sonia is moving to Florida (in, at) a month.
5. The children's birthday party was held (on, at) the bowling alley.
Review Test
Underline the correct form in parentheses.
1. When I looked out the window, I was surprised by the deep (snow, snows).
2. (Are, There are) cockroaches in the kitchen.
3. When she did not get the job she wanted, Laura felt (depressing, depressed) for a few days.
4. Owls hunt (at, in) night and sleep most of the day.
5. Larry (postponed to go, postponed going) on vacation because he broke his foot.
6. My English teacher wears a (silver small, small silver) ring in his ear.
7. Marta (has, is having) a very bad cold.
8. (On, In) Valentine's Day, friends and lovers send each other affectionate cards.
9. (Turkey is, Turkeys are) the traditional main course at Thanksgiving dinner.
10. Before the camera was invented, (the paintings, paintings) were the only way to record how people look.