Writing reference
The writing reference section contains:
a variety of key expressions and linking words and phrases
an editing checklist of key points you should be thinking about when you complete a task for Paper 2
a checklist for different task types.
Useful linking expressions
The list below provide a selection of linking expressions that you will find useful in your writing.
1 Time sequence
When/As soon as/ The moment they arrived, the meeting began.
On hearing the news, we immediately phoned to congratulate them.
From early childhood/an early age, she showed great aptitude for music.
Throughout his adult life, he has dedicated himself to helping others.
Up to that time, she ha never even been abroad.
2 Listing
First of all, it must be stated that …
Secondly, it could be argued that …
Last but nor least, it must be remembered that …
Finally, it is important to …
3 Adding information/emphasizing a point
He left early - and on top of that/to cap it all, he didn't pay for his share of the meal. (informal)
She didn't really want to see the film, and besides/anyway/anyhow she was too tired to go to the cinema now. (informal)
The rent i8s reasonable and moreover/furthermore/in addition the location is perfect.
Not only has he achieved a great deal, but he has also set an example for a generation.
They want new regulations in the hostel; above all, they want to restrict the noise level in the evenings.
These new medicines are perfectly safe. Indeed, they can be given to young children.
4 Giving examples
Many things contributed to her success, for instance/for example/such as hard work, good fortune and the support of her friends.
To illustrate this point, …
Let's take the example of …
5 Explaining/reformulating
Some cars are more environmentally friendly than others. That is to say/In other words, they cause less pollution.
He read the newspaper to confirm what he knew already, that is/namely that his team had lost.
You should treat you colleagues as friends, or, better still/rather, as close friends if you want to create a good working atmosphere.
6 Contrast
She was very kind. By/In contrast, he seemed very callous.
Some people learn languages easily. Conversely, others find it very difficult.
It wasn't a good thing; on the contrary, it was a huge mistake.
They decided not to take the car. Instead, they caught the next train.
On the one hand I enjoyed their company, but on the other hand their strange lifestyle disturbed me.
7 Concession
Although/Even though he was feeling unwell, he attended the meeting.
Despite feeling unwell, he attended the meeting.
He felt unwell; however/nevertheless/nonetheless, he attended the meeting.
He was feeling unwell but he attended the meeting all the same/even so. (informal)
My friends left the cinema before the end of the film whilst/whereas/while I stayed until it had finished.
No matter how many/However many times I listen to that music, it still move me to tears.
Whoever comes, it will be a valuable opportunity to discuss the problem.
8 Giving opinions
In my opinion/view, he is one of the most impressive writers of our generation.
It seems to me that one of the biggest problems facing us today is …
(Personally,) I feel that more needs to be done to encourage young people to take responsibility for the environment.
I can honestly say that …
9 Commenting/expressing own attitude (sentence adverbials)
Surely it must be obvious to anyone that this plan is doomed is failure.
Clearly, more needs to be done to persuade people to use public transport.
Not surprisingly, there has been considerable opposition to this plan.
Irritatingly/Annoyingly, the authorities have decided to cut the funds available for the project.
10 Giving reasons
Seeing that/As it was getting late, they decided to return home.
Trains are being delayed owing to/due to/because of the inclement weather.
They liked his idea, in so far as/to the extent that it made money for the company.
11 Purpose
In order for her to live a comfortable life, she had to find a well-paid job.
She spoke quietly in order not to/so as not to wake the sleeping child.
12 Results/consequences
A lot of people voted for his entry and thus/consequently/therefore/as a result/accordingly he was awarded the prize.
He became a citizen in 1999, thereby gaining the right to vote.
Many areas have been modernized in such a way as to make the city more attractive to tourists.
13 Comparisons
It's a good deal/a great deal/very much easier to watch sport than to take part.
She looked as if/as though she'd seen a ghost.
He was nowhere near/nothing like as good at tennis as (he was at) basketball.
The more cities expand, the less access we have to the countryside.
14 Summing up
Although the day was not a complete success, all in all it went as well as could be expected.
To sum up/In short, it was a highly successful visit.
Overall, what I most admire is their determination to succeed.
In conclusion/Finally/To conclude, it seems clear that tourism is having an adverse effect on the area.
The team played well, but at the end of the day they just weren't good enough to win. (informal)
Checklist of key points for editing
1 Understanding the question
Your writing will be assessed on relevance to the task set; you must identify and answer the exact question set.
Have you identified the key words in the question and answered all parts?
You must make sure that you have answered the questions fully and clearly.
Have you taken any given input into account?
If you are completing a Part 1 task, make sure that you read the given input carefully so that you can use it to structure your answer.
Remember that a Part 1 task is usually discursive so you will need to put forward a point of view and support it with ideas or evidence.
Have you identified the appropriate style required by the task?
You must think about the appropriate style to use - e.g. a report is more formal than an article.
2 Planning and organisation of material
Your writing will be assessed on both the organisation of the whole answer and on the organisation of individual paragraphs. Careful planning is very important.
Have you decided on the main points you want to make before you start to write?
If you have not made a plan, then your writing will not be well organised. In a Part 1 answer you must plan in order to make sure that you include all the relevant information from the input text.
Does your introduction make it clear what ideas your writing will develop?
In a discursive (Part 1) task you should give a clear indication in your introduction of the main areas you are planning to cover and follow this structure throughout the task. The input may give you ideas for these areas.
In a formal letter you should state your reasons for writing in the first paragraph.
In an essay, report or proposal your introduction should state the main topic areas you will be covering - this is he `plan of development'.
In an article your introduction should set the scene and capture the reader's interest, e.g. by referring to a specific incident.
Have you started a new paragraph for each new topic (but not each new point)?
Each paragraph should have one main topic only (though in a discursive answer there may be more than one piece of evidence provided to support the idea).
Do the topics in your supporting paragraphs match the opening statement or plan of development stated in your introduction?
Make sure that you haven't strayed from your main theme and included any unrelated points.
Does each paragraph include plenty of supporting evidence for the main idea?
You should provide enough details or examples to support your main point so that your writing will be convincing.
Have you linked your paragraphs so that they follow on from each other clearly?
You supporting paragraphs should follow a sensible, logical sequence and should be linked clearly either by linking words or phrases or by the underlying meaning.
Have you used a clear method of development to organise the supporting details within each paragraph?
Common methods of development are:
Chronological time order
Emphatic order - listing points from the least important to the most important or `saving the best until last'
Contrast/concession - making a point followed by an opposite point
Have you used appropriate linking words to help link the sentences within each paragraph?
Linking words signal the method of organisation you have chosen, and help the reader to follow the direction of your thoughts - but don't overuse them as this is unnatural.
Is your conclusion prepared for?
In a discursive answer (Part 1), your conclusion should summarise your answer to the question and state your own opinion or conclusion.
In a report or proposal, your conclusion should summarise the points made or make final recommendations.
In an article, your writing should round off with a quotation from a person interviewed in the article or a rhetorical question to the reader that echoes the introduction.
3 Range and appropriacy of language
You will be assessed on the range of vocabulary and structures you use and the appropriacy of your language for the type of writing.
Have you used a style and register appropriate to the task?
Check that you haven't used language that is too formal or informal for the task and that you have been consistent. For example, you shouldn't use features of informal language in a formal letter, report or proposal (see Register table Unit 4 p 62, correction of register mistakes Unit 3 page 47).
Have you used a variety of structures and vocabulary?
Try to vary the way you start your sentences, by using participle clauses, inversions, etc, where appropriate.
4 Accuracy
You will be assessed on the range of grammatical structures you use and how accurate your writing is.
Have you made any basic mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
Make sure that you check tenses and verb agreements - basic mistakes such as `he don't' and misuse of capital letter create a very bad impression. (See correction of mistakes Unit 1 page 19.)
5 Overall impression
Is your writing interesting and enjoyable to read?
You will have a better chance if the examiner enjoys reading your work!
Be careful that you don't:
forget to answer the compulsory question in Part 1
forget to use the input given in Part 1 as the basis of your answer
include information that is not relevant to the question you are interesting
use too many connecting words and phrases - they should be used when necessary, not in every sentence
writ more than the number of words required
take longer than one hour for each composition.
Your timing should be:
10 minutes thinking and planning
40-45 minutes writing
5-10 minutes checking
There is no advantage in taking one and a half hours over one answer and then only having 30 minutes for the second. You should spend an equal time on each answer.
A checklist for different task types
Part 1
All task types must use the given input as the basis of the answer, and the focus will be discursive.
An article is written for unknown readers often to raise issues or provoke thought.
involve presentation and/or discussion of a point of view supported by evidence
have an introduction which states the overall topic
be divided into clear paragraphs according to the topic of each
return to the question or round off the argument in the conclusion
use a variety of structures and vocabulary to retain the reader's interest
use a style appropriate to the specified audience.
An essay is written for a tutor or a specific reader and is usually academic. It should:
involve presentation and/or discussion of a point of view supported by evidence
state the general position in the introduction and outline the frame of the essay
be divided into clear paragraphs according to the topic of each
return to the question and state the writer's own opinion in conclusion
use a formal style.
A proposal is written for a specific reader or readers, for a specific purpose and focuses on the future. It should:
involve discussion of a situation and recommendations for future action, supported by evidence
have an introduction giving background information to the current situation
be divided into clear sections (possibly with headings) and topic paragraphs
summarise the proposal in the final paragraph with recommendations
use a formal style.
A letter may be personal (either formal or informal) or it may be written for publication in a magazine or newspaper. It should:
involve presentation and/or discussion of a point of view with supporting evidence
use appropriate phrases for the register and focus of the task (formal or informal)
be divided into clear topic paragraphs
make recommendations or call for action in the final paragraph
begin and end appropriately.
Part 2
Answers will be more descriptive than discursive. The article, proposal and letter should follow the same guidelines as given for Part 1, but the answers will be more descriptive than discursive.
A report is written for a specific group of readers for a specific purpose and focuses on a past or present situation. It should:
involve description of a past or present situation or event in an official context
have an introduction giving background information
be divided into clear section (possibly with headings) and topic paragraphs
make recommendations or suggestions in the final paragraph
use a formal style.
A review is written for unknown readers to give information about a place, film, book, etc. with evaluation and advice. It should:
involve presentation of a point of view supported by evidence
have an introduction which states the overall topic
be divided into clear paragraphs according to the topic of each
return to the question or give a final opinion or verdict in the conclusion
use a variety of structures and vocabulary to retain the reader's interest
use a style appropriate to the specified audience.