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MORPHOLOGY- the set of rules governing the internal structure of words the studies of their free and bound forms, their modification in religion to one another in a specific language 

MORPHEME- The smallest, most elemental unit of a language which has a grammatical function and an independent meaning 

FREE MORPHEME -independent minimal units. They r divided into 2 groups 

LEXICAL which is the open class and they can occur by themselves and carry the content -boy, car 

FUNCTIONAL closed class of function  words usually conjunctions prepositions articles- but, when, on, near 

BOUND MORPHEME (grammatical) closed class which can occur only attached to other morphemes un-, dis-, ir-, -s,  

INFLECTIONAL- change the form of a word in order to express its relationship to other words in the sentence, never changing its grammatical category. Walk-walking, drop-dropped 

DERIVATIONAL - derive new words and can change the category or grammatical class kind-kindness, reliable-unreliable 

ROOT - the smallest simple form from which a complex form can be derived. It cannot be further divided 

STEM - any form to which an affix can be added  

AFFIXES - morphemes bound in a particular position 

PREFIXES- occur before other morphemes 

SUFFIXES- occur after other morphemes 

INFIXES- inserted into morphemes 

PRODUCTIVITY - some affixes are more productive then others ex: -er, -ed, -s 

BOUND ROOTS/STEMS - stems that never occur alone like -mit 

SUPPLETION- two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis ex go-went 

COINAGE - the invention of new terms invented trade names or company's products which become general terms  aspirin, Kleenex, Teflon, Xerox  

COMMONIZATION - words derived from names of people place  sandwich lynch 

CLIPPING - a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, front: phone, back: perm, front&back:fridge, middle:maths, 

BLENDING- combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term, usually beginning of the word and ending of another: smog 

Acronyms- formed from initial letters of a set of words TV 

BACKFORMATION - specialized type of reduction. A word of one type(N) is reduced to form a word of a different type(V) edit>editor,  

BORROWINGS- Taking over the words from other languages 

CALQUE- direct translation of the elements of a word into toe borrowing language ubermensch> superman 

Unit- 

Coordination- adding a unit when perform similar function 

Wh- questions 

Clefting - starts with to be 

Passivation - making sentence passive 

Fronting- poetic use of the language 

That clause, unstressed there, empty use of it, adverbial group, prepositional phrase. 

Show, tell, teach- omit Od 

Place of articulation: 

1.BILABIAL(p,b,m) -  two lips are brought together 

2.LABIO-DENTAL(f,v) - the lower lip is raised against the upper teeth 

3.DENTAL(θ,ð) - the lip of the tongue is raised against the upper teeth or put on between the upper and lowe teeth 

4.ALVEOLAR(t,d,n,l,s,z) - the tip and blade or the blade only of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge 

5.POST-ALVEOLAR(r) - the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the back part of the alveolar ridge 

6.PALATE ALVEOLAR (∫,ʒ, ʧ, ) - the blade or the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar rigde and there is the same time a rising of the front of the tongue 

7.PALATAL (j) - the front of the tongue articulate with the hard palate 

8VELAR(k,g, ŋ) - the back of the tongue articulate with the soft palate 

9.UVULAR- the back of the tongue articulate with the uvular 

10.GLOTTAL(h,  ) - the postruction causing friction but not vibration between the vocal folds 

11.RETROFLEX- the tip of the tongue is curled back to articulare with the part of the hard palate immiediately behind the alveolar ridge. 

 

Manner of articulation: 

1.COMPLETE CLOSURE 

a)plosive(p,b,t,d,k,g) - a complete closer at some point in the vocal track is made behind which the air pressure builds up and is suddenly realise 

b)affricate (ʧ,   ) - a complete closer at some point in the mouth is made behind which the air pressure builds up.The separation of the organs is slower comared to that of the closive so that friction is the characteristic cesond element of the sound. 

c)nasal stops (m,n,ŋ) - a complete closer at some point in the mouth is made but the soft palate being lowered the air is escapes through the nose 

2.INTERMITTENT CLOSURE 

a)trial/roll - a serious of rapid intermittent made by a flexible organ on a form services 

b)flap -this is a single side rapid contact mage by a flexible organ on a form services 

3.PARTIAL CLOSURE 

a)lateral(l)-a porcial closure is made of some point in the mouth the air-stream being allowed to escape on one or both side of the contact 

4.NARROWING 

a)fricate (f,v,s,z,h, ʃ ,ʒ, θ,ð)  - two organs are closed to each other to such an extent that the air passed through between them with friction 

b)approximonts (w,j,r)-articulators are closed but there is no friction 

 

ANTICIPATORY LANGUAGE-in English an articulator that is not necessarily  involved in a given sound will nearly always start moving toward its position  in the next sound in which it is the primary articulator.This phonemon is known as AL 

ACTIVE - denoting a form of a verb used to indicate that the subject is performing the action  

ADAM`S APPLE -  the lump at the front of your neck that moves when you talk or swallow  

AIRFLOW-the movement of air through or around sth  

AIR STREAM - a flow of air in which it is flowing  

ALLOPHONES - different realizations of a phoneme. They don`t change the meaning 

ALVEOLAR RIDGE - is one of the two jaw ridges either on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth  

ARYTENOID CARTILAGES - Inside the larynx there is a tiny pair of cartilages shaped rather like dogs' ears. They can be moved in many different directions. The rear ends of the vocal folds are attached to them so that if the arytenoids are moved towards each other the folds are brought together, making a glottal closure or constriction, and when they are moved apart the folds are parted to produce an open glottis. The arytenoids contribute to the regulations of pitch: if they are tilted backwards the vocal folds are stretched lengthwise (which raises the pitch if voicing is going on), while tilting them forwards lowers the pitch as the folds become thicker.  

ARTICULATOR / ORY /  ATION - The concept of the articulator is a very important one in phonetics. We can only produce speech sound by moving parts of our body, and this is done by the contraction of muscles. Most of the movements relevant to speech take place in the mouth and throat area (though we should not forget the activity in the chest for breath control), and the parts of the mouth and throat area that we move when speaking are called articulators. The principal articulators are the tongue, the lips, the lower jaw and the teeth, the velum or soft palate, the uvula and the larynx 

PRIMARY ARTICULATION-in fricatives is the close approximantion of two articulators so that friction can be heard.The lip rounding is a lesser articulation in that the two articulators(the lower and the upper lip)approach one another but  not sufficiently to cause friction 

SECONDARY ARTICULATION-a lesser degree of closure by two articulators not involved in the PA is called SA 

ASPIRATION - a period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel.In a narrow transcription, A.may be indicated by a small raised h, [h],e.g.[phat]. Phonemes /p,t,k/are aspirated: *after a vowel *at the beginning of a stressed syllable 

FINAL STOPS ARE UNEXPLODED-are when the next word begins with a nasal.The same is true if the next word begins with a stop.The final /t/in cat is nearly always unexploded in phrase like “the cat pushed..” In a narrow transcription we can symbolize the fact that a consonant  is unexploded by adding a small raised circle[o].We could therefore  transcribe the phrase as /      `kh   to  `ph  ∫t/ 

CARTILAGE - a strong substance that can bend which is arrowed the joints in your body and in your outer ear  

CAVITIES - a hole or space inside something  

CHEST = RIB CAGE - the the front part of your body between your neck and your stomatch=the structure of ribs In your chest 

CYCLES PER SECOND - was a once-common unit of frequency, represented by Hertz  

CARDINAL VOWEL -accurate way of classifying vowels and have developed set of vowels. It is a standard reference system. WE have two kind of cardinal vowels: * primary c.v (these are the vowels that are most familiar to the speakers of most European language) *secondary c.v. (sounds less familiar). People being trained in phonetics at an advanced level have to learn to make them accurately and recognize them correctly. 

CHART-It is usual to display sets of phonetic symbols on a diagram made of a rectangle divided into squares, usually called a chart, but sometimes called a matrix or a grid. The best-known phonetic chart is that of the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association - the IPA chart.  

CLOSURE-This word is one of the unfortunate cases where different meanings are given by different phoneticians: it is generally used in relation to the production of plosive consonants, which require a total obstruction to the flow of air. To produce this obstruction, the articulators must first move towards each other, and must then be held together to prevent the escape of air. Some writers use the term closure to refer to the coming together of the articulators, while others use it to refer to the period when the compressed air is held in.  

CONSONANT -is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or  stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible sufficient. There are many types of consonant.  

CLEAR L-before vowel; the tip is touching the alveolar ridge and one or both  sides are near the upper side teeth,but not quite touching.The front of the  tongue will be raised toward the hard palate e.g.leaf (/l/is velarization) 

COARTICULATION-all utterances involve C.-the overlapping of adjacent  articulators.English consonant often vary their place of articulation so that  they become more like the next sound 

DARK L-after vowel; speakers make this sound with the tongue tip touching the  alveolar ridge.In both British and American English the back of the tongue is considerably raised toward the soft palate e.g.feel (/l/is not velarization ) 

DEVOICING- the process by which speech sounds that are normally voiced are made voiceless immediately after a voiceless obstruent: for example, the /r/ in cream /kriːm/ and the /w/ in twin /twɪn/Voice is slow to build up at the onset of speaking and fades at the end, so that voiced obstruents (stop and fricative consonants) are partly or wholly devoiced in initial and final position, as with the initial and final /d/ in dead /dɛd/ when spoken in isolation 

DIAPHRAGM - the muscle that is between your lungs and your stomatch and that you use  when you breathe (przepona) 

DIPHTONG - sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. They are like the long vowels. The most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part. The total number of d. is eight 

CENTRING DIPHTONGS- A diphthong that moves towards a central vowel position for its second element ; connection with centre line 

CLOSING DIPHTONGS- a diphtong  which glides towards a closer sound;connection with close line 

TRIPHTONG -is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption;  they can be difficult to pronbounce and very difficult to recognize.It is composed of the five closing diphthongs described in the last section with    added on the end 

EGRESSIVE PULMONIC AIRSTREAM - the normal way for airflow to be produced is for some of the air in the lungs to be pushed out. When air is made to move out of the lungs we say that there is an e.p.a. 

FINAL STOP CONSONANTS-producing an extra vowel at the end in own language 

FRICTION - the natural force that prevents one surface from sliding easily over another surface 

GLOTTAL STOP = GLOTTAL PLOSIVE - a speech sound made by completely closing and then opening your glottis, which in some forms of spoken English may take the place of a / t / between vowel sounds or may be used before a vowel sound  

GLOTTIS - is the sound that occurs when the vocal cords are held  tightly together.The symbol for it is [    ]which is similar to a question  mark without the dot.Phonemes /t,p,k/can replace it.GS frequently  occur as allophones of/t/.Probably most Americans and many British  speakers have a GS followe by a syllabic nasal in words such as “beaten” /`bi  n/  “kitten”/`ki   n/.yyyyyy-is ound like GS.GS occur whenever one caughs .One of the commonest occurrences of a GS is in the utterance meaning no, which is often spelt “uh-uh” 

/h/-is simply the voiceless counterpart of the following sound.When saying “he”/hi/-all you do is assume the vowel position for /i/,pronounce this first as a voiceless sound and then add vocal cord vibrations to turn it into a voiced sound. 

In many accents of English /h/can occur only before vowels or before the approximant/j/as in “hue”/hju/ 

HARD PALATE ( “roof of the mouth”)- is a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the mouth 

HOMORGANIC SOUNDS-when two sounds have the same place of articulation  e.g.sadden/s  dn/ d,n-alveolar 

INGRESSIVE -All speech sounds require some movement of air; almost always when we speak, the air is moving outwards - there is an egressive airflow. In rare cases, however, the airflow is inwards (ingressive). It is possible to speak while drawing air into the lungs: we may do this when out of breath, or coughing badly; children do it to be silly. It has been reported that some societies regularly use this style of speaking when it is customary to disguise the speaker's identity. We also find ingressive airflow created by the larynx (see glottalic, implosive) or by the tongue (see click).  

INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION AND ALPHABET - the International Phonetic Association was established in 1886 as a forum for teachers who were inspired by the idea of using phonetics to improve the teaching of the spoken language to foreign learners. the Association had a revolutionary impact on the language classroom in the early decades of its existence.  

LABIALIZATION-the secondary articulation in which the action of the lips is added to another articulation.The English fricatives /∫ ,   /are strongly labialized  and the fricatives /s,z/are slightly labialized 

LATERAL PLOSION-the air pressure that is build up during the stop is released by  lowering the sides of the tongue and the effect is called LP e.g.little/l  tll/ 

LARYNX = VOICE BOX = VOCAL TRACT- the part in your throat where your  voice is produced  

*It has several very important functions in speech. It is in the neck, it has several parts. Its main structure is made of cartilage, a material that is similar to bone but less hard. The larynx`s structure is made of two large cartilages. These are hollow and are attached to the top of the trachea, when we breathe the air passes through the trachea and the larynx. 

MANNER OF ARTICULATION-One of the most important things that we need to know about a speech sound is what sort of obstruction it makes to the flow of air: a vowel makes very little obstruction, while a plosive consonant makes a total obstruction. The type of obstruction is known as the manner of articulation. Apart from vowels, we can identify a number of different manners of articulation, and the consonant chart of the International Phonetic Association classifies consonants according to their manner and their place of articulation.  

MINIMAL PAIR- are pairs of words or phrases, which differ in only one phonological element, and have a distinct meaning  

NASAL POSITION-when a voiced stop and a nasal occur in the same word as in  “hidden”.It is normally used in pronouncing words as  “sadden”/s  dnn/ 

/ ŋ /-differs from the other nasals in a number of ways.No English word can  begin with / ŋ /.This sound can occur only within or at the end of a word.It can be preceded only by the vowels and it cannot be syllabic.There is a rule 

 saying that /n/ has the allophone / ŋ /whenever it occurs before/g/turning /sıng/into /sı ŋg/ 

NOSTRIL - one of the two holes at the end of your nose, through which you breathe and smell things  

OBSTRUCTION - when sth blocks sth or the thing that blocks it  

OBSTRUENTS-fricatives and stops together as a natural class of sounds 

OESOPHAGUS = ESOPHAGUS the tube which food passes down from your mouth to your stomatch  

PALATE - the sense of taste and especially your ability to enjoy or judge food  

The palate is sometimes known as the “roof of the mouth”. It can be divided into the hard palate, which runs from the alveolar ridge at the front of the mouth to the beginning of the soft palate at the back, and the soft palate itself, which extends from the rear end of the hard palate almost to the back of the throat, terminating in the uvula, which can be seen in a mirror if you look at yourself with your mouth open.  

PHARYNGEAL - relating to or situated in or near the pharynx, a speech sound produced in the pharynx  

PHARYNX - the tube that goes from the back of your mouth  to the place where the tube divides for food and air (  

*Is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about 7cm long in women and about 8cm in men. It is divided into two: 1)one part being the back of the mouth 2)being the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity 

PHONEME - is the smallest unit distinguishing meaning. They change the meaning Phoning are abstract. We have 26 phonemes in our alphabet 

This is the fundamental unit of phonology, which has been defined and used in many different ways. Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d, g a group of voiceless fricatives f, θ, s, ʃ, h, and so on 

PHONETICS- is the scientific study of speech. It has a long history, going back certainly to well over two thousand years ago. The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognise different sounds.  

PHONOLOGY- is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages, but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rhymearticulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages

PLACE OF ARTICULATION-Consonants are made by producing an obstruction to the flow of air at some point in the vocal tract, and when we classify consonants one of the most important things to establish is the place where this obstruction is made; this is known as the place of articulation, and in conventional phonetic classification each place of articulation has an adjective that can be applied to a consonant.  

RESONATOR - a piece of equipment that makes the sound of a musical instrument louder  

RIBS - one of the 12 pairs of curved bones that surrounded your chest  

RIDGE - the top of a roof wherethe two sloping sides meet  

ROOT - the part of a tooth, hair etc. that connects it to the rest of your body  

SOFT PALATE = VELUM - the soft part at the back of the top of your mouth. It allows air to pass through the nose and through the mouth. It is one of the articulators that can be touched by the tongue 

STOP This term is often used as if synonymous with plosive. However, some writers on phonetics use it to refer to the class of sounds in which there is complete closure specifically in the oral cavity. In this case, sounds such as m, n are also stops; more precisely, they are nasal stops.  

TARGET POSITION-positions of the vocal organs that are specified for a  given sound as theTPfor that sound.The estimated target for/k/as in”key”or  “caw”is the position for the back of the tongue 

TRACHEA=WINDPIPE - the tube that takes air from your throat to your lungs  

TRANSCRIPTION- is the writing down of a spoken utterance using a suitable set of symbols.  

TRANSCRIPTION 

Phonemic 

( uses Only phoneme symbols, we have 26 symbols of phoneme in our alphabet e.g. /pi:l/) 

Phonetic 

(it is more detailed and more accurat) 

 

1. Broad (it is contains only few details  like stress e.g /`pi:l/) 

2. Narrow (it contains all possible details e.g /`p   i:  l) 

 

3different symbols in International Phonetic Alphabet 

1) Phonemes 

2) Diacritics (diascribics e.g.           ) 

3) Suprasegmental (modify sth more than phoning e.g. intonasion raising or lowing, stress marks is it) 

 

TRIPHTONG  

*consist of three vowels, combination of three part of letters  

*is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption;  they can be difficult to pronbounce and very difficult to recognize 

UVULA - a small soft piece of flesh which hangs down from the top of your mouth at the back  

VELARIZATION-when the back of the tongue is raised in this way we may say that  there is the secondary articulation.In most forms of British English syllable final /l/  is strongly velarized.The symbol for vel. Is the mark /   /through the middle of the  symbol e.g.feel /f i  l / 

VIBRATION - a continuous slight shaking movement  

VOCAL FOLDS=VOCAL CORDS - thin pieces of muscle in your throat that produce sounds when you speak  

VOICELESS - without voice; voiceless sounds are made without using the vocal folds  

VOICELESSS GLOTTAL FRICATIVE - is a type of sound used in some spoken language which often behaves like a fricative, but sometimes behaves more like an approximat or is indetermine in its behavior. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is h and the equivalent X-SAMP symbol is h 

VOWELS - are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. A doctor who wants to look at the back of a patient`s mouth often asks them to say “ah” making this vowel sound is the best way of presenting an unobstructed 

SHORT VOWELS - are only relatively short, can have quite different lengths in different context (                                           

LONG VOWELS - they tend to be longer than the short vowels in the contexts, these vowels tend to be long, symbols consist of one vowel symbol plus  a length mark made of two dots :  (                      )  

PURE VOWEL - a vowel which remains constant and does not glide.This term is used to refer to a vowel in which there is no detectable change in quality from beginning to end; an alternative name is monophthong. These are contrasted with vowels containing a movement, such as the glide in a diphthong.  

CLOSE VOWEL In a close vowel the tongue is raised as close to the palate as is possible without producing fricative noise. Close vowels may be front (when the front of the tongue is raised), either unrounded [i] or rounded [y], or they may be back (when the back of the tongue is raised), either rounded [u] or unrounded [ɯ]. There are also close central vowels: rounded [_] and unrounded [_]. English i and u are often described as close vowels, but are rarely fully close in English accents.  

WALL - the side of sth hollow, especially within the body   

DERIVATION the most common word-formation process;-prefixation (be-,co-,dis-,ex-,mis-,re-, un- etc)suffixation (-ate,-ation,-er,-ing,-ist,-ment,-ness,-ship etc.).Derivational changes: Verb>Noun (don-ation),writ-er,typ-ist,govern-ment), Verb>Adj (read-able,writ-ing,act-ive), Noun>Verb (colon-ise,regul-ate), Noun>Adj (tradition-al,child-lish,care-less,trouble-some), Adj>Verb (active-ate,modern-ise),Adj>Noun (brav-ery,hard-ship,dark-ness), Adj>Adv (usual-ly,proud-ly), Adj>Adj(blu-ish), Verb>Verb (chatt-er)  

Conversion- zero derivation,functional shift- a change in the function of a word ( when a noun starts to be used as a verb (paper,bottle,butter), a verb becomes a noun (guess,must,spy) ,or an adjective (see-through),an adjective becames a verb (dirty,empty,total) or a noun (crazy,nasty) etc.Head of department(Noun)>to head of department (Verb);a slow train (Adj):go slow (Adv)>to slow the car (Verb)  

COMPOUNDING-formation of new lexemes from two or more potential stems.Division of compound nouns according to semantic criteria:*endocentric  one lement of the compound determines another,usually the first element is modifying .The second is the head e.g. armchair (kind of chair),bookcase (kind of case),casebook (a kind of book), a fishing rod (rod),city museum but also son-in-law*exocentric none of the elements  determines the other e.g. pickpocket,make-up *appositional both elements contribute to the meaning e.g. boyfriend,maidservant 

COINAGE  The invention of new terms(invented trade names or company's products which become general terms) - aspirin,Kleenex,Teflon,Xerox 

COMMONIZATION ( EPONYMY) - words derived from names of people or places :sandwich, lync, boycott, derby,bobby,platonic,china 

CLIPPING- a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form ;front of the words: planu,bus,phone;,back of the words: info,lab,pop,porn,bike,mike,bra,ad,perm);front and back of the word (flu,fridge);middle of the word (vegan,maths)  

BLENDING -combining of two separate forms to produce a singlr new term,usually the beginning of one word and the ending of the otherchunnel,somg,motel,workaholic,brunch,Oxbridge) 

 ACRONYMS- formed from the initial letters of a set of words.They are pronounced in two ways:1)pronunciation consists of the set of letters (TV,VCR,CD,DJ,VIP,BMX,OK) 2)pronounced as single words ( NATO,NASA, UNESCO, AIDS, laser,radar, scuba). One of the types of backformation are hypocorisms -first a longer word is reduced to one syllable and then -y or -ie is added to the end (telly,barbie,bookie,brekky,Aussie,hankie) 

 BACKFORMATION -specialized type of reduction.A word of one type(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of a different type(usually a verb) editor>edit, beggar>beg, television>televise option>opt, babysitter> babysit 

MIXED TYPES  more then one process may be at work to create a particular word ( deli < delicatessen (borrowing,clipping), to snowball <snow, ball   (compounding, conversion), waspish<White Anglo-Saxon Protestant(acryonym,derivation) 

 

Morphology:the set of rules governing the interwal structure of words,the study of their free and bound forms,their modification in relation to one another in a specific language. 

Morpheme:the smallest,most elemental unit of a language which has a grammatical function and an independent meaning-a minimal meaningful unit.The term is derived from the Greek word morphe meaning form 

 

Types of morphemes: 

1.Free morphemes:independent meaningful units. 

Lexical-open class of morphemes which can occur by themselves as independent words and carry the `content' of message we convey(boy,car,sleep,good) 

Functional-closed class of functional words,usually conjunctions,prepositions,articles and pronouns,which can also occur by themselves(and,but,when,because,on,near) 

2.Bound morphemes-closed class of morphemes which can only occur attached to other morphemes and not by themselves(dis-,un-,pre-,ir-,-s,-ment,-ish) 

Inflectional-change the form of a word in order to express its relationship to other words in the sentence,never changing its grammatical category(walk-walking;drop-dropped;dog-dogs) 

Derivational-derive new words and can change the category or grammatical class of words(kind-kindness[adj>noun];inform-information[verb>noun]) 

Root-the smallest simple form from which a complex form can be derived.It cannot be further divided 

Stem-any form to which an affix can be added 

Affixes-morphemes bound in a particular position: 

-prefixes:occur before other morphemes(ex-,in-,un-) 

-suffixes:occur after other morphemes(-able,-er,-ist,-ly,-ness) 

-infixes:morphemes which are conjoined to other morphemes by inserting them into a morpheme 

Productavity:some affixes are more productive than others ex.:-er suffixation, -ed tense ending vs. -en plurals. 

Bound roots(bound stems)-stems that never occur alone,like -mit and -ceive which were productive in Latin,but their origins were obstructed by time and borrowings into English(remit,permit,submit,commit) 

Allomorphs:a number of variants or alternate phonetic forms of a morpheme,depending on the context. 

-phonologically conditioned allomorphs-when their form is dependent on the adjacent phonemes 

-a plural morpheme can be realized differently(cats,but also men,oxygen,deer,children-the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular or is not signaled at all) 

-suppletion-two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis. 

 

Borrowing-taking words or morphemes from other languages. 

Types of borrowings: 

a)Direct-palma(Latin)-palm(English) 

b)Indirect-kahaveh(Turkish)-kahva(Arabic)-koffie(Dutch-coffee(English

c)Replacement 

d)leanwords-a word borrowed from one lang. to another with a possible slight adaptation 

e)loanshift-loan translation;calque-the direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing lang 

Languages: 

1Latin: 

a)continental(common to all German lang-before 400AD)-plant,mint,beet,palm,mill,cheese 

b)post-continetal)OE time)-creed,port,castle,mount 

c)via Celtic-cross candle,ark,chest 

d)Middle English-testament,contract,assume,delicate 

e)Early Modern English(16th/17th century)-colony,immigration,export,function 

f)Modern formations(modeled on Latin words)-computer,radioactive 

2Greek(via Latin)-theory,politics,epic,energy 

3Old Norse(Danish)-fellow,husband,sister,law,window 

4Norman French-country,river,lake,city,prince,count 

5Arabic(via Latin,French)-alchemy,algebra,alcohol,zero 

 

Isolating or Analytic Lang-words cosist of one morpheme.They show a low ratio of words to morphemes;sentences in analytic lang. are composed of independent root morphemes.Grammatical relations between words are expressed by separate words where they might otherwise be expressed by affixes,which are presented to be minimal degree in such lang.there is little to no morphological change in words:they tend to be uninflected.in analytic lang. context and syntax are more important than mophology 

Synthetic lang.:from words by affixing a given number of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme.the morphemes may  be distinguishable from the root or they may not.word order is less important for these lang. than it is for analytic lang,since individual words express the grammatical relations that would otherwise be indicated by syntax.there tends to be a high degree of concordance.therefore,morphology is more important than syntax. 

Agglutinative-have words containing several morphemes that are always clearly differentiable from one other in that each morpheme represents only one grammatical meaning and the boundaries between those morphemes are easily demarcated;that is,the bound morphemes are affixes and they may be individually identified. 

Fusional/Inflecting-morphemes in fusional lang. are not readily distinguishable from the root or among themselves.several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into one affix.morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in the root,such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation or by suprasegmental features such as stress or tone,which are of course insenarable from the root. 

 

1.SYLLABIC/NONSYLLABIC[+SYL] - syllabic sounds are these that constitute syllable peaks,nonsyllabic sounds are those that do not.Syllabic sounds are typically more prominent than contiguous nonsyllabic sounds(vowels,syllabic consonants vs. glides,nonsyllabi consonants) 

2.CONSONANTIAL/NONCONSONANTIAL[+CONS] - consonantial sounds are produced with a sustained vocal tract constriction at least equal to that reqired in the production of fricatives,nonconsonantial sounds are produced without such a constriction(obstruents,nasals,liquids vs. vowels and glides) 

3.SONORANT/OBSTRUENT[+SON] - sonorant sounds are produced with a vocal tract configuration sufficiently open that the air pressure inside and outside the mouth is approximately equal.Obstruent sounds are produced with a vocal tract constriction sufficient to increase the air pressure inside the mouth significantly over that of the ambient air (vowels,glides,liquids,nasals vs.stops and fricatives) 

4.CORONAL/NONCORONAL[+COR] - coronal sounds are produced by raising the tongue blade toward the teeth or the hard palate;noncoronal sounds are produced without such a gesture (dentals,alveolars,palate-alveolars,palatas vs. labials,velars,uvulars,pharygeals) 

5.ANTERIOR/NONANTERIOR[+ANT] - Anterior sounds are produced with a primary constriction at or in front of the alveolar ridge,while posterior sounds are produced with a primary constriction behind the alveolar ridge(labials, dentals,alveolars vs. palate-alveolars,palatas,velars,uvulars, pharygeals) 

6.LABIAL/NONLIBIAL[+LAB] - as a term implies,labial sounds are formed with a constriction at the lips,while nonlabial sounds are formed without such a constriction(labial consonants,rounded vowels vs.all other sounds) 

7.DISTRIBUTED/NONDISTRIBUTED[+DISTR] - Distributed sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the midsaggital axis of the oral tract,nondistributed sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for only a short distance in this direction(sounds produced with the blade or front of the tongue vs.sounds produced with the tip of the tongue. This feature may also distinguish bilabial sounds from labiodentals sounds) 

8.HIGH/NONHIGH[+HIGH] - high sounds are produced by raising the body of the tongue toward the palate,nonhigh sounds are produced without such a gesture(palatas,velars,palatalized and velarized consonants,high vowels and glides vs. all other sounds) 

9.BACK/NONBACK[+BACK] - back sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively retracted; nonback or front sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively advanced(velars,uvulars,pharyngeals,v elarized and pharyngealized consonants,central vowels and glides,back vowels and glides vs all other) 

10.LOW/NONLOW[+LOW] - low sounds are produced by drawing the body of the tongue down a way from the roof of the mouth;nonlow sounds are produced without such a gesture(pharyngeal and pharyngealized consonants,low vowels vs. all others) 

11.ROUNDED/UNROUNDED[+ROUND] - rounded sounds are produced with protrusion of the lips;unrounded sounds are produced without such protrusion (rounded consonants and vowels vs unrounded consonants and vowels) 

12.CONTINUANT/STOP[+CONT] - Continuants are formed with a vocal tract configuration allowing the airstream to flow through the midsaggital regin of the oral tract;stops are produced with a sustained occlusion in this region.(Vowels,glides,liquids, fricatives vs. nasal and oral stops) 

13.LATERAL/CENTRAL[+LAT] - lateral sounds,the most familiar of which is (1),are produced with the tongue placed in such a way as to prevent the airstream from flowing outward through the center of the mouth,while allowing it to pass over one or both sides of the tongue;central sounds do not involve such a constriction(lateral sonorants,fricatives and affricatives vs. all other sounds) 

14.NASAL/ORAL[+NAS] - nasal sounds are produced by lowering the velum and allowing the air to pass outward through the nose;oral sounds are produced with the velum raised to prevent the passage of air through the nose(nasal stops,nasalized consonants,vowels and glides vs. all other sounds) 

15.ADVANCED.UNDVANCED TONGUE ROOT[+ATR] - as its name implies, this feature is implemented by drawing the root of the tongue forward, enlarging the pharyngeal cavity and often raising the tongue body as well; [-ART] sounds do not involve this gesture.([+ART] vowels such as [I,u,e,o] vs. [ART] vowels such as) 

16.TENSE/LAX[+TENSE] - tense vowels are produced with a tongue body or tongue root configuration involving a greater degree of constriction than that found in their lax counterparts;this greater degree of constriction is frequently accompanied by greater length(these vowels vs lax vowel) 

17.STRIDENT/NONSTRIDENT[+STRID] - strident sounds are produced with a complex constriction forcing the airstream to strike two surfaces, producing high-intensity fricative noise;nonstrident sounds are produced without such a constriction.(sibilants,labiodentals,uvulars vs all other sounds) 

18.SPREAD/NONSPREAD GLOTTIS[+SPREAD] - spread or aspirated sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn apart,producing a nonperiodic(noise) component in the acoustic signal; nonspread or unaspirated sounds are produced without this gesture(aspirated consonants,breathy voiced or murmured consonants,voiceless vowels and glides vs all others) 

19.CONSTRICTED/NONCONSTRICTED GLOTTIS[+CONSTR] - constricted or glottalized sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn together,preventing normal vocal cord vibration; nonconstricted sounds are produced without such a gesture(Ejectives,implosives,glottalized or laryngealized consonants,vowels and glides vs. all other) 

20.VOICED/VOICELESS[+VOICED] - voiced sounds are produced with a laryngeal configuration permiting periodic vibration of the vocal cords;voiceless sounds lack such periodic vibration(voiced vs. voiceless consonants) 

21.VOCALIC/NONVOCALIC[+VOCALIC] - vocalic sounds are produced with an oral cavity constriction no greater than that associated with the vowel/i/ and /u/  and with adducted vocal folds. Vocalic sounds include the vowels and liquids 

22.DELAYED  RELEASE/NONDELAYED RELEASED [+DEL REL] - delayed realized stops have a slow release of the stop closure,resulting in local friction noise(delayed release) is used to distinguish affricates ([+del rel] from plosives [-del rel]) 

PHONOLOGY- is essentially the description of the system and patterns of speech sounds in a language.It is,in effect,based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sounds patterns of that language. Phgonology is concerned with the abstract or  mental aspect  

Of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds. 

 

PHONEME-is the smallest contrastive until in the sound system of a language 

 

ALLOPHONES-The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning,but substituting allophones only result in a different pronunciation of the same word. 

 

NASALS - sounds produced with full oral closure but lowered velum so that the air is realized through the nose 

 

STOPS-sounds produced with full oral closure and raised velum. The air is released through the mouth after sudden opening of articulation(lips or tongue) 

 

FRICATIVES- sounds produced with audible friction through narrow opening of the mouth. 

 

VELARISATION-the back of the tongue is considerably raised toward the soft palate. Contact of the alveolar ridge is primary articulation is raised it's called secondary articulation. The symbol of velarisation is the mark [-] through the middle of the symbol.  

 

OBSTRUENT - a natural class of sounds to which fricatives and stops to stop together; the characteristic feature is obstructed somewhere; this sounds act together on phonological rules  

 

ASPIRATION-a period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel.If you put you hand in front of your lips while saying `pie' you can feel the burst of air that comes outduring the period of voicelessness after the release of the stop. 

 

INITIAL NASALS - are shorter than nasals in terms of length. Also on the other word syllable initial consonants are shorter than syllable final consonants. 

 

DARK L-The so-called "dark L" occurs at the end of words (call, trial) and before consonants (milk, hold). Speaker make this sound with the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge.But in both British and American English the back of the tongue is considerably raised toward the soft palate. 

 

CLEAR L-The so-called "clear L" or "light L" occurs before a vowel (lap, lord) or before the glide /j/ (billiard, scallion).The lip is touching the alveolar ridge and one or both sides are near the upper side teeth,but not quite touching.The front of the tongue will be raised toward the hard palate. 

 

DIPHTHONG- (gliding vowel); is a contour vowel, that is a unitary vowel that changes quality during its pronounciation or „glides” with a smooth movement of the tongue from one articulation to another. 

 

PEAK - a centre of syllable which has no or little obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud (it consists of a vowel) 

 
ONSET - these are consonants which precede the peak 

 
CODA - these are consonants which follow the peak 

 

GLOTTAL STOP - is the sound that occurs when the vocal cords are held tightly together.The symbol for it is  (ʔ), which is similar to a question mark without he dot.  

 

LATERAL PLOSION - the air pressure that is built up during the stop is realized by lowering the sies of the tongue and the effect is called lateral plosion. 

 

COARTICULATION - the overlapping of adjacent articulations.English consonants often vary their place of articulation so that they become more like the next sound. 

 

ANTICIPATORY COARTICULATION - In English an articulator that is not necessarily involved in a given sound will nearly always start moving toward its position in the next sound in which it is the primary articulatior. 

 

NASAL RELEASE - In phonetics, a nasal release is the release of a plosive consonant into a nasal stop. Such consonants are also called prestopped nasals

Prestopped nasals, and prenasalized stops, occur when the oral cavity is closed, and the nasal cavity is opened by lowering the velum, but the timing of these two events does not coincide. 

 

PALATALIZATION: The moving of an articulation of a stop to a more palatal position because of the presence of a front vowel, for example, in the English word "gift" the "g" is palatalized due to the following i. 

H - is simply the voiceless counterpart of the following sounds.When saying `he',all you do is assume the vowel position for [i],pronounce this first as w voiceless sound and then add vocal cord vibrations to turn it into a voiced sound. 

 

AFFRICATIVES - an affricate is simply a sequence of a stop followed by a homorganic fricate. Some such sequences, eg.: the dental affricate [tθ] as In `eighth' Or the alveolar affricate [ts] as In `acats',have been Niven no special status In English phonology. 

 

PRIMARY ARTICULATION - the lip rounding is a lesser articulation in that the two articulatiors(the lower lip and the upper lip) approach one another but not sufficiently to cause friction 

 

SECONDARY ARTICULATION - a lesser degree of closure by two articulatiors not involved in the primary articulation is called a secondary articulation.  

 

LABIALIZATION - this particular one in which the action of the lips is added to another articulation. English fricatives [ʃ, ʒ] are strongly labialized,but [s,z] are slightly. 

 

APPROXIMANTS - sounds produced with audible friction through narrow opening of the mouth. 

 

VOICELESS - when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Sounds produces in this way are described as voiceless 

 

VOICED - when the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through,creating a vibration. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. 

 

MINIMAL PAIR - when two words such as pat and but are indentical in from except for a contrast in one phoneme,occurring in the same position,the two words are described as a minimal pair. Other examples of English minimal pairs are: fan-van, bet-bat,site-side. 

 

MINIMAL SET - when a group of words are differentiated,each one from the others,by changing one phoneme,then we have a minimal set.A minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat,fit,fat,fate,fought,foot and one based on consonants could have big,pig,rig,fig,gig,wig. 

 

POSITION:In clauses with one Object,The Direct Object follows the verb*She wanted to borrow a video).When there are two Object,The Direct Object follows the Indirect Object (SO I lent her (Oi) one (od)) 

PARAPHRASE:The Oi usually has an alternative prepositional paraphrase(Ilent one to her),with the status of a Prepositional Object,but the Od has not. 

PRONOMINALISATION:Since objects encode participants,they can be realized by objective case pronouns(me,him,her,us,them) 

`PROMOTION'TO subject in a passive clause.Both direct and indirect objects usually have the potential of being subject in a corresponding passive clause(he sent them a fax. The fax(S) was sent. They(S) were sent a fax) 

SEMANTIC ROLES:The indirect object is associated with Recipient and Beneficiary roles,the direct object with the Affected,among others. 

REALISATION:Both Objects are realised typically by Nominal Groups expressing entities;less typically by other classes of unit. 

 

The Direct Object(Od) 

1.1.Syntactic and semantic features: 

*it occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verb such as hit,buy,send

*it is placed immediately after the predicator,but follows an indirect object,if there is one I have sent the invitation (Od), I have sent everyone(Oi) an invitation(Od); 

*it is typically realized by nominal group,as in I saw the burglar (NG),but may also be realized by embedded clauses,as in I saw what he did(cl); 

*it can generally be `promoted' to become subject in a corresponding passive clause The invitations (S) have been sent.(corresponding to the Od in I sent the invitations); 

*Direct objects can be tested for,by questions beginning with Who(m)?What?Which?How much/how many? And by who-clefts.:What did you dend?What I sent were the invitation (wh-cleft) 

1.2Realisations of the Direct Object: 

NOMINAL GROUP(NG)(We hired a caravan):the typical realization of the Direct Object function is the nominal group,ranging from a pronoun(l) or proper name to full NGs(2). 

1.I don't understand it

2.Have you read that new novel I lent you? 

3.Forest fires are threatening the world's remaining population of orang-utangs 

A small number of common verbs take untypical direct objects.They include verbs such as have,cost,lack,resemble,fit,suitweigh,contain and measure.All these answer questions with What?Who?How many/how much?, as in usual with Ods.These verbs don't passive,but their Ods pass the wh-cleft test:What she lacks is confidence

ANTICIPATORY IT(I find it strange that she left): The semantically empty pronoun it is necessary as an `anticipatory Direct Object' in SPOdCo structures in which the Od is realized by a finite or non-finite clause:  

I(S) find(P) it (Od) strange(Co) that he refuses to come(Od)

She(S) might consider(P) it (Od) insulting(Co) for you to leave now(Od) 

You(S) must find (P) it(Od) f;attering(Co) having so many fans(Od) 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE(The boss prefers before 10 for the meeting): prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realize direct object:  

I would prefer before noon for the meeting; 

Don't choose by a swamp for a picnic. 

FINITE CLAUSE(You know(thath)I'm right):The two types of finite clause found at subject can also function as  a less prototypical Direct Object:nominal that-clauses,that often being omitted in informal styles,and wh-clauses.They fear that there may be no survivors.(nominal that-clause).No-one knows where he lives(wh-clause).You can eat whatever you like(wh-nominal clause)

However,passivisation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase. 

We can apply this to the following example with wonder,which rejects passivisation but fulfils the wh-cleft test: 

I wonder whether they know the truth

*Whether they know the truth is wondered. 

What I wonder is whether they know the truth. 

NON-FINITE CLAUSE(They enjoy travelling by train):Non-finite clauses realising Direct Object function are of two types:infinitive clauses with or without to,and -ing clauses. 

Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. 

Many Londers prefer travelling by train. 

We analyse such clauses as embedded at Od on the strength of the following criteria: 

*the non-finite clause can be replaced by a NG(prefer by train or by it that (prefer it); 

*can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence(what manyLonders prefer is to travel/travelling by train). 

However,not all non-finite pass these tests.We do not analyse as embedded clauses at direct object'phased' verbal groups with certain types of catenatives,as in He failed to appear,I tried to speak.Althoug superficially similar,they do not fulfil the above criteria.Many embedded clauses at direct object occur with an explicit subject of their own:otherwise,the implicit subject is the same as that of the main clause: 

*to-infinitive clause: 

the villagers want to leave immediately(implicit subject [they]); 

The villagers want the soldiers to leave immediately (explicit subject the soldiers) 

**-ing clause: 

Do you mind waiting a few minutes?(with implicit subject); 

Do you mind my waiting a few minutes?(with explicit subject in objective or possessive case) 

***to-infinitive or -ing clause: 

He hates telling lies(implicit subject);he hates people telling lies.(explicit subject); 

he hates for people to tell lies(for+explicit subject+to-inf). 

Again,non-finite clauses are very non-prototypical direct object.They represent situations,not ebtities,and do not easily passive.However,many can become the focus in a wh-cleft:What he hates is people telling lies/for people to tell lies.  

Consonants 

 

Vowels 

CLASSES OF WORDS AND FUNCTIONS OF WORDS:TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR 

*Nouns are words used to refer to people(girl),objects(bag),creatures(cat),places(office),qualities(roughness),phenomena(earthquake) and abstract ideas(love)as if they were all things 

*Articles are words (a,an,the)used with nouns to form noun phrases classifying those `things`(You can have a banana or an apple)or identifying them as already known(I`ll take the apple) 

*Adjectives are words used,typically with nouns,to pro vide more information about the things referred to(happy pe ople,large objects,a strange experience) 

*Verbs are words used to refer to various kinds of action (go,talk)and states (be,have) involving pe ople and things in  events(Jessica i sill and Has a sore throat so she can`t talk Or go anywhere) 

*Adverbs are words used,typically with verbs,to pro vide more information about actions,states and events(slowly,yesterday).Some adverbs(really,very) are also used with adjectives to modify information about things(Really large objects move slowly.I had a very strange experience yesterday) 

*Prepositions are words(at,in,on,near,with,without)used with nouns in phrases providing information about time(at five o`clock,in the morning),place(on the table,near the window)and other connections(with a knife,without a thought)involving actions and things 

*Pronouns are words(she,herself,they,it,you)used in place of noun phrases,typically referring to people and things already known(She talks to herself.They said it belonged to you) 

*Conjunctions are words (and,but,because,when)used to make connections and indicato relationships between events(Chantal`s husband was so sweet and He  helped Her a lot because she couldn`t do much when she was pregnant) 

 

LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS 

1)TESTING FOR CONSTITUENTS 

Jane teased the dog with the stick 

Two interpretations: 

1.││Jane│teased│the dog with the stick││ 

2.││Jane│teased│the dog││with the stick││ 

Evidence for analysis can be sought by such operations: 

a)coordination 

b)wh-questions 

c)clefting 

d)passivation 

e)fronting 

Certain types of unit may resist one or more of these operations.If two or more of the operations can be carried out satisfactorily,we can be sure that the sequence in question is a constituent of a larger unit. 

2)UNITS AND RANK OF UNITS 

unit-any sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and which has a recognized pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and writing. 

The effects of the accident are very serious. 

A rank scale: 

UnitBoundary marker Example 

Clause:││                  ││the effects of the accident are very serious││ 

Group:│                  │the effects of the accident│are│very serious│ 

Word:a spacethe effects of the accident are very serious 

Morpheme:          +              {EFFECT}+{PLURAL},realized by the morphs effect and -s 

Each unit consists of one or more units of the rank below. 

3)CLASSES OF UNITS 

3.1)Classes of clauses 

A.Finite and non-finite clauses 

Finite verb and therefore also finite clauses,are marked for either tense or modality,but not both.Their function is to relate the verb to the speech event.Tensed forms distinguish the present tense(lock,locks)from the past tense(locked) in regular verbs and many irregular verbs and also,as in eat,ate;go,went.Modality is marked by the modal verbs.If the speaker wishes to express tense or modality,together with person and number,a `finite`form of the verb is chosen,therefore such as is,eats,locked,went,will stay and the clause is then called a finite clause(fin.cl.) 

If the verb-form does not signal either tense or modality,the verb and the clause are classified as non-finite (V-non-fin; non-fin, cl).The non-finite verb forms are: 

*the infinitive(inf.)(be,eat,lock,go) sometimes called the `bare`infinitive 

*the to-infinitive(fo-inf) 

*the participal -ing form (-ing)(being,eating, locking,going) 

*the past participal form,symbolized as -en (been,eaten,locked,gone) 

These forms are said to be non-tensed 

B.Independent and dependent clauses 

An i.c.(indep.cl)is complete in itself,that is,it does not form part of a larger structure,wheras a d.c. (dep.c.)is typically related to an i.c.They locked up the house(indep.cl),before they went on holiday(dep.cl.).All grammatically independent clauses are finite.Dependent clauses may be finite or non-finite. 

C.Finite dependent clauses 

The subordinate status of a finite dependent clause is normally signaled by means of subordinating conjunctions(`subordinators`)such as when, if ,before, as soon as in circumstantial clauses(1)or by `relativisers`such as which,that in relative clauses(2) 

1.As soon as she got home,Ann switched on the television 

2.Paul took one of the red apples that his wife had bought that morning. 

Nominal clauses fulfil the functions of Subject,Object and Complement in clause structure.In a sentence such as: He saw that the bottles were empty,the clause[that the bottles were empty]is embedded as a constituent(in this case as Object)of the superordinate clause he saw x.The part without the embedded clause is sometimes called the matrix clause. 

The main types of nominal clause are the thatT-clause(3),the wh-nominal relative clause(4)and the dependent wh-interrogative clause 4 and 5. The dependent excamataive(6)is a further type of wh-clause: 

3.He saw that the bottles were empty (that-clause) 

4.What I don`t understand is why you have come here. (nominal relative clause+dependent wh-interrogative) 

5.I`ll ask where the nearest Underground station is. (dependent wh-interrogative) 

6.She said how comfortable it was. (dependent exclamative clause) 

Comparative clauses occur following the comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs.The comparative clause,introduced by than,provides the basis of comparison: 

7.The results are much better  than we expected. 

Supplementive units are not integrated into the main clause,as embedded units are,but add supplementary information.They are subordinate but not embedded.They are set off from the main clause by commas or by a dash and have their own intonation contour. 

Built of cypress,brick and glass,the house exhibits many of the significant contributions that Wright made to contemporary architecture. 

A verbless clause lacks a verb and often a subject also.The omitted verb is typically a form of be and is recoverable from the situational or linguistic context,as in: 

Book your tickets well in advance,whenever  possible(=whenever it is possible) 

Abbreviated clauses such as can you? I won`t,has she?which consist of the Subject+Finite operator alone,with the rest of the clause ellipted because it is known. 

3.2)Classes of groups 

Groups are classified according to the class of the word operating as the main or `head`element.Headed by a noun,an adjective,an adverb and a verb respectively,we can identify the following classes: 

Nominal Groups (NG)films, wonderful fims by Fellini 

Verbal Groups(VG)return, will return 

Adjectival Groups (AdjG)good,quite good at languages 

Adverbial Groups (AdvG)fluently, very fluently indeed 

The main element can replace the whole structure.By contrast,the unit formed by a preposition and its complement,such as on the floor,is rather different.The preposition can`t function alone as a unit.Both elements are obligatory.This unit will therefore be called the `Prepositional Phrase`(PP) 

3.3)Classes of words 

Words are classified grammatically according to the traditional terminology,which includes noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,article and conjunction.These `parts of speech` are divided into two main classes,the open and the closed.The open classes are these that freely admit new members into the vocabulary.The comprise noun,verb,adjective and adverb.The closed classes(preposition,pronoun and article)do not easily admit new members. 

3.4)Classes of morphemes 

Words are made up of morphemes.The morpheme is an abstract category that has either a lexical or a grammatical meaning. 

4)THE CONCEPT OF UNIT STRUCTURE 

4.1.Syntactic elements of clauses 

Subject(S)-Jupiter is the largest planet 

Predicator(P)-The election campaign has ended 

Direct Object(Od)-Ted had bought a new motorbike 

Indirect Object(Oi)-They sent their friends postcards 

Prepositional Object(Op)-You must allow for price increases 

Subject Complement(Cs)-He is powerless to make any changes 

Object Complement(Co)-We consider the situation alarming. 

Locative/Goal Complement(Cloc)-We flew to Moscow 

Circumstantial Adjunt(A)-The news reached us on Tuesday 

Stance Adjunt(A) - Unfortunately,we could not reach York in time 

Connective Adjunt(A)-However,other friends were present 

4.2.Syntactic elements of groups 

Nominal groups,adjectival groups and adverbial groups are composed of three primary elements or functions: a head(h) preceded by a pre-modifier(m)and followed by a post-modifier(m).This last element is sometimes called `qualifier`.In the chapters devoted to these groups we also distinguish `complement`(c) as a special type of post-head element.In the case of nominal groups, we also distinguish between `modifiers`,which describe or classify the head,and `determines`(d),which specify it in terms definiteness,quantity,possessivness etc. 

NG:dmhm:those│beautiful│paintings│by Goya 
AdjG:mhc:extremely│difficult│to translate 

AdvG:mhm:very│carefully│indeed 

In verbal Groups,the lexical verb is regarded as the main element(v),which either functions alone,or is preceded by auxiliaries(x).The first auxiliary(or the auxiliary,if there is only one)is called the `finite operator`(o). 

v:plays 

ov:has│played [have+ -en] 

oxv:will│be│playing [will+ [be+ -ing]] 

oxxv:must│have│been│played[must+[have+ -en] [be+ -en]] 

The lexical verb is sometimes followed by an adverbial particle(symbolized by `p`)as in ring up,break out,take over). 

In Prepositional Phrase (PP)there are two obligatory elements:the prepositional head(h)and the complement(c).There is also an optional modifier(m),which is typically realized by an adverb of degree (e.g.right,quite).The structure of PPs is illustrated as follows: 

mhc:right│across│the road 

      quite│out of│practice 

 

SUBJECT AND PREDICTATOR 

1.The subject(S) 

1.1Semantic, cognitive and syntactic features 

A.Semantic and cognitive features 

The subject is that functional category of the clause of which something is predicated.The prototypical subject represents the primary participant in the clause and has the strongest claim to the cognitive status of Topic.The subject can be associated with almost every type of participant role,not only the Agent.It may be also Affected,Experiencer,Recipient etc. 

B.Synactic features 

*The Subject it's that syntactic function which,in English,must be presented in declarative and interrogative clauses,but is not required in the imperative. 

*A clear and easy criterion is the question tag.The Subject is that element which is picked up in a question tag and referred to anaphorically by a pronoun:Your brother is a ski instructor,isn't he? 

*The Subject is placed before the finite verb in declarative clauses,and in wh-interrogative clauses where the wh-element is Subject 

Unfortunately,everyone left early.Who came in late last night? 

*It is placed after the finite operator in yes/no interrogative clauses,and in wh-interrogative clauses in which the wh-element is not Subject 

Are you pleased with the result? 

Did everyone left early? 

What film did you see last night? (What film is Object) 

When did Sylvia get back?(When is Adjunct) 

*Whenpronouns are used, the pronominal forms -I,he,she,we and they-are used to realise subject function,in contrast to the objective forms me,him,her,us and them,which are used for Objects.You and it are the same for both.Possessive forms may stand as subject: 

Yours was rather difficult to read.Jennifer's got lost in the post 

*Subject determine the concord of number(singular or plural) and person with the verb.Concord is manifested only in those verb forms that show inflectional contrast: 

The librarian/he/she/has checked the book 

The librarians/I/you/we/they have checked the book 

Where is my credit card? Where are my credit cards? 

  *When the subject is realised by a collective noun,concord depends on how the referent is visualized by the speaker: 

The committee is sitting late(seen as a whole) 

The committee have decided to award extra grants(seen as a number of members) 

*Subjects determine number,person and gender concord with the Subject Complement,and of reflexive pronouns at Cs,Oi and Od: 

Jean and Bill are my friends 

She cut herself(Od) on a piece of broken glass 

Why don't you give yourself (Oi) a treat?  

 

1.2Realisation of the subject 

Subjects can be realised by various classes of groups and clauses: 

A.Nominal Groups - That man is crazy 

They can range from simple heads to the full complexity of NG structures 

Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain. 

The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known 

B.Dummy it - It's hot 

This is a semantically empty use of the pronoun it, which occurs in expressions of time, weather and distance, such as: It's nearly three o'clock. It's raining. It is 600 kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona. 

C Unstressed there - There's plenty of time 

Unstressed there fulfils several of the syntactic criteria for subject: position, inversion with auxiliaries and repetition in tag phrases; but unlike normal subjects it cannot be replaced by a pronoun. Concord, when made, is with the following NG: 

There was only one fine day last week, wasn't there? There were only two fine days last week, weren't there? 

Unstressed there can be considered as a subject 'place-holder' or 'syntactic filler', rather than a full subject, since the unit following the verb is clearly the notional subject. 

D Prepositional phrase and Adverbial group as subject - Now is the time 

These function only marginally as subject and usually specify meanings of time or place 

Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place) Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time) 

E.Adjectival head - the poor 

The Adjectival Group as such does not function as subject. However, certain adjectives - preceded by a definite determiner, normally the definite article, and which represent either (a) conventionally recognized classes of people, as in The handicapped are given special facilities in public places, or (b) abstractions - can function as heads of (non-prototypical) NGs 

This novel plunges the reader into a universe in which the comic, the tragic, the real and the imagined dissolve into one another. 

F.Embedded clauses 

Clauses can realise every element or function of clause structure except the predicator. 

*There are two main types of embedded finite clause: that-clauses and wh-clauses, the latter being either indirect interrogative clauses or nominal relative clauses. They are illustrated in the following examples, where they all realise the subject element. 

That he failed his driving test surprised everybody, (that-clause) 

Why the library was closed for months was not explained, (wh -interrogative) 

What he said shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause) 

That-clauses at subject are used only in formal styles in English. In everyday use they are more acceptable if they are preceded by the fact. The that-clause thus becomes complement of a NG functioning as subject: 

The fact that he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (NG) 
A more common alternative is to extrapose the subject that-clause. as in It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test. 

*Wh-interrogative clauses express indirect questions. They do not take the inversion characteristic of ordinary interrogatives, however; so. for instance. Why was the library closed for months wasnot explained is not acceptable. 

*Nominal relative clauses also have a wh- element, but they express entities and can be paraphrased by 'that which' or 'the thing(s) which' as in: 

What he said pleased me = 'that which'/the things which he said pleased me. 

*Non-finite clauses at Subject are of two main types, depending on the VG they contain: to- 
infinitive, which can be introduced by a wh-word, and -ing clauses. (The third non-finite clause 
type, the -en clause, is not used in this way.) The 'bare' infinitive is marginally used: 

To take such a risk was rather foolish, (to-inf. clause) 
Where to leave the dog is the problem, (wh- + to-inf. clause) 
Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance, (-ing clause) 

Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause) 

*To-infinitive and -ing clauses at subject can have their own subject; bare infinitive clauses cannot. 
A to-infinitive clause with its own subject is introduced by for. 

For everyone to escape was impossible. (For + S + to-inf.) 

Sam having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (S + ing-c\.) 

The pronominal subject of an -ing clause can be in the possessive or the objective case. The objective form is the less formal: 

Him/ His having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. 

G. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject - If was silly to say that 

Subjects such as that he failed to pass the driving lest and for everyone to escape sound awkward especially in spoken English. The derived structure with 'anticipatory //'is now generally preferred. 
It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test. It was impossible for everyone to escape. 
Here the lhat-clause or the to-infinitive clause is extraposed that is. placed after the Od (everybody) or Cs (impossible). The initial subject position is filled by the pronoun it. Extraposition is commonly used in both speech and writing, especially when the subject is long and heavy, and is better placed at the end of the 
sentence. Some extraposed clauses are obligatory. For It is (high) time, there is no corresponding pattern with theclause in initial position (* That he stopped fooling around is high time). Likewise, the clause following it + verbs of seeming (seem, appear) and happening (happen, turn out), is obligatorily extraposed: 

It seems that you were right after all. (*That you were right after all seems.) 

It so happened that the driver lost control. (*That the driver lost control happened.) 

 

2.THE PREDICATOR 

The term is used for the clause element present in all major of clause including the imperative clause.The predicator is the clause function that largely determines the remaining structure of the clause,by virtue of being intransitive,transitive or copular.The predictor may constitute the whole of the predicate,as in The plane landed,or part of it,as in The plane landed on the runway.The predicator is indentified by position in relation to the subject.The predicator function is realised by both finite(eg.:waits) and non-finite(waiting) lexical and primary verbs. 

 

DIRECT,INDIRECT AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECTS 

Position:In clauses with one Object,The Direct Object follows the verb*She wanted to borrow a video).When there are two Object,The Direct Object follows the Indirect Object (SO I lent her (Oi) one (od)) 

Paraphrase:The Oi usually has an alternative prepositional paraphrase(Ilent one to her),with the status of a Prepositional Object,but the Od has not. 

Pronominalisation:Since objects encode participants,they can be realized by objective case pronouns(me,him,her,us,them) 

`Promotion'to subject in a passive clause.Both direct and indirect objects usually have the potential of being subject in a corresponding passive clause(he sent them a fax. The fax(S) was sent. They(S) were sent a fax) 

Semantic roles:The indirect object is associated with Recipient and Beneficiary roles,the direct object with the Affected,among others. 

Realisation:Both Objects are realised typically by Nominal Groups expressing entities;less typically by other classes of unit. 

 

1.The Direct Object(Od) 

1.1.Syntactic and semantic features: 

*it occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verb such as hit,buy,send

*it is placed immediately after the predicator,but follows an indirect object,if there is one I have sent the invitation (Od), I have sent everyone(Oi) an invitation(Od); 

*it is typically realized by nominal group,as in I saw the burglar (NG),but may also be realized by embedded clauses,as in I saw what he did(cl); 

*it can generally be `promoted' to become subject in a corresponding passive clause The invitations (S) have been sent.(corresponding to the Od in I sent the invitations); 

*Direct objects can be tested for,by questions beginning with Who(m)?What?Which?How much/how many? And by who-clefts.:What did you dend?What I sent were the invitation (wh-cleft) 

1.2Realisations of the Direct Object: 

NOMINAL GROUP(NG)(We hired a caravan):the typical realization of the Direct Object function is the nominal group,ranging from a pronoun(l) or proper name to full NGs(2). 

1.I don't understand it

2.Have you read that new novel I lent you? 

3.Forest fires are threatening the world's remaining population of orang-utangs 

A small number of common verbs take untypical direct objects.They include verbs such as have,cost,lack,resemble,fit,suitweigh,contain and measure.All these answer questions with What?Who?How many/how much?, as in usual with Ods.These verbs don't passive,but their Ods pass the wh-cleft test:What she lacks is confidence

ANTICIPATORY IT(I find it strange that she left): The semantically empty pronoun it is necessary as an `anticipatory Direct Object' in SPOdCo structures in which the Od is realized by a finite or non-finite clause:  

I(S) find(P) it (Od) strange(Co) that he refuses to come(Od)

She(S) might consider(P) it (Od) insulting(Co) for you to leave now(Od) 

You(S) must find (P) it(Od) f;attering(Co) having so many fans(Od) 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE(The boss prefers before 10 for the meeting): prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realize direct object:  

I would prefer before noon for the meeting; 

Don't choose by a swamp for a picnic. 

FINITE CLAUSE(You know(thath)I'm right):The two types of finite clause found at subject can also function as  a less prototypical Direct Object:nominal that-clauses,that often being omitted in informal styles,and wh-clauses.They fear that there may be no survivors.(nominal that-clause).No-one knows where he lives(wh-clause).You can eat whatever you like(wh-nominal clause)

However,passivisation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase. 

We can apply this to the following example with wonder,which rejects passivisation but fulfils the wh-cleft test: 

I wonder whether they know the truth

*Whether they know the truth is wondered. 

What I wonder is whether they know the truth. 

NON-FINITE CLAUSE(They enjoy travelling by train):Non-finite clauses realising Direct Object function are of two types:infinitive clauses with or without to,and -ing clauses. 

Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. 

Many Londers prefer travelling by train. 

We analyse such clauses as embedded at Od on the strength of the following criteria: 

*the non-finite clause can be replaced by a NG(prefer by train or by it that (prefer it); 

*can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence(what manyLonders prefer is to travel/travelling by train). 

However,not all non-finite pass these tests.We do not analyse as embedded clauses at direct object'phased' verbal groups with certain types of catenatives,as in He failed to appear,I tried to speak.Althoug superficially similar,they do not fulfil the above criteria.Many embedded clauses at direct object occur with an explicit subject of their own:otherwise,the implicit subject is the same as that of the main clause: 

*to-infinitive clause: 

the villagers want to leave immediately(implicit subject [they]); 

The villagers want the soldiers to leave immediately (explicit subject the soldiers) 

**-ing clause: 

Do you mind waiting a few minutes?(with implicit subject); 

Do you mind my waiting a few minutes?(with explicit subject in objective or possessive case) 

***to-infinitive or -ing clause: 

He hates telling lies(implicit subject);he hates people telling lies.(explicit subject); 

he hates for people to tell lies(for+explicit subject+to-inf). 

Again,non-finite clauses are very non-prototypical direct object.They represent situations,not ebtities,and do not easily passive.However,many can become the focus in a wh-cleft:What he hates is people telling lies/for people to tell lies.  

 

2.The Indirect Object(Oi) 

2.1Syntactic and semantic features: 

*the indirect object occurs only with verbs which can take two subjects such as give,send. Its position in clause structure is between the verb and the direct object:I sent them a fax 

*it is typically realized by a NG,but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause.As a pronoun,it is in the objective case 

*the indirect object is associated with two semantic roles.Recipient(the one who receives the goods or information), and the Beneficiary or `intended recipient'.The differences between the two are reflected in the syntax. 

Recipient Oi-    Beneficiary Oi 

She has lent me a few CDs. -  I'll buy you a drink 

The doctor gave the injured man oxygen .- He got us the tickets. 

Sammy Karanja is teaching the students maths- She left him a note. 

In passice counterparts the Recipient Oi corresponds to the subject.By contrast,most Beneficiary Objects do not easily become subject in a passive clause,although this restriction Is not absolute,at least for some speakers 

Recipient as Subject - Beneficiary as Subject 

I have been lent a few CDs - You'll be bought a drink 

The injured man was given oxygen - We were got the tickets 

The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja - He was left a note. 

*Both recipient and Beneficiary Oi have an optional prepositional paraphrase,which functions as a Prepositional Object.For the Recipient,the preposition is to, for the Beneficiary it is for. The prepositional from is often used to bring the Oi into focus,particularly when it is longer than the Od: 

The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man - I'll buy drinks for you all 

She lent a few CDs to her next-door neighbor - He got the tickets for us all 

He is teaching maths to the first-year students - She left a note for her husband 

*the Oi can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the grammaticality of the clause: 

The doctor gave oxygen - I'll buy the drinks. 

He doesn't like lending his CDs - He got the tickets 

Sammy Karanja is teaching maths - She left a note. 

*With some verbs(show,tell,teach,etc) the Od may be unexpressed: 

Who told you(the answer)? 

Perhaps you could show me(how to do it) 

He's teaching immigrant children(maths) 

2.2Realisations of the Indirect object 

Both Recipient and Beneficiary Indirect Object are typically,realised by NGs,and less typically by wh-nominal relative clauses,which occur more usually as a prepositional alternative: 

The clerk handed him the envelope(recip/NG) 

You can lend the dictionary fo whoever needs it (recip/nom. relative cl.) 

Phill has booked all his friends tickets for the show (Ben/NG) 

More  marginally, A recipient Oi can realised by non-finite -ing clause or a PP,but these options are not open to a Beneficiary Oi,which always refers to an antity: 

I'm giving reading magazines less importance lately(-ing cl)Let's give before lunch-time priority(PP) 

3.Prepositional Verbs and the Prepositional object(Op) 

A subsidiary type of Object is that which is mediated by a preposition 

Joe looked after my cat 

You can rely on Jane in an emergency 

The other kids all laughed at Amy when she got her face dirty 

These examples all have in common the following characteristics: 

*the NG following the preposition encodes a participant in the clause structure 

*the preposition is associated with a particular verb,often called a prepositional verb.Idiomatic prepositional verbs have separate lexical entries in dictionaries. 

*without the preposition,the clause would either be ungrammatical(8look my cat.*count Jane.*Laughed Amy) or,in some cases,have a different meaning altogether,as in see to the baggage(attend to it) as opposed to see the baggage 

*The preposition can't be replaced by another preposition without changing the meaning(look after the cat,look for the cat,look at the cat) 

 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLIMENTS  

1.There are 2 main types of Complement that which complements the Subject (Cs)and that which complements the Object (Co). The Subject Complement completes the predicate after a copular verb by specifying an Attribute of the Subject or its identity. No passivisation is possible. The Subject Complement can be realized by AdjCs, by definite and indefinite NGs and by clauses  

2.The Object Complement (Co) completes the predicate with an AdjG or a NG following a direct object. The Direct Object, but not the Complement, can become subject in a passive clauses.  

3. When the Cs is a pronoun, use is divided between the subjective and the objective case. The Co pronoun is always objective. 

1.THE COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBJECT (Cs)  

1.1 Syntactic and semantic features 

*The Subject Complement is the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb and which cannot be made subject in a passive clause. Who's there? It's me/It's I. She became a tennis champion at very early age.Feel free to ask questions. 

*The Subject Complement does not represent a new participant as an Object does, but completes the predicate by adding information about the subject. For this reason the Subject Complement differs from the Object in that it can be realized not only by a nominal group but also by an adjectival group (AdjG).  

*As well as be and seem ,a wide range of verbs can be used to link the subjects to its Complement, these add meanings of transition become,get,go,grow,turn)and of perception (sound,smell,look).The constituent following such verbs will be considered Subject Complement if the verb can be replaced by be and can't stand alone, without the change of the meaning: I know it sounds stupid ,but …(=is stupid) -I know it sounds. That looks nice (=is nice) - That looks. 

* There is typically, number agreement  between the subject and its  Complement and gender agreement with a reflexive pronoun at complement, as in Janet isn't herself today.There are,however,several common exceptions to number agreement.Joan and Lionel make a good couple.My neighbour's cats are a nuisance/a joy.Are these socks wool?No,they're cotton.The twins are the same height. 

*Copular verbs predict meanings of being sth ,describing or identifying the subject referent.The Subject Complement completes the predicate by providing info about the subject with regard to its Attributes or its identity. The identifying type is typically reversible,the attributive is not:The concert was marvellous, (attributive) -Marvellous was the concert.The concert was a great success. (attributive) - A great success was a concert. The orchestra was the London Philharmonic (The London Philharmonic was (identifying) the orchestra.) 

1.2.Realisations of the Subject Complement  

Attributive subject complements are realised by AdjGs and NGs. Identifying Subject Complements can be realised by NGs and by clauses.A.Attributive Complements (S-P-Cs)-She was ambitious.AdjG She is twenty-two years old. NG Sam is a very lucky man.As+NG His research was recognised as a great contribution to scienc. The Rolling Stones' concert  was acclaimed as the event of a season.B.Identifying Complements (S-P-Cs)- Her name was Jane. NG Sierra Leone is one of the worldąs biggest producers of diamonds. Fin. that+cl Ken belief is that things can't get any worse.Nominal relative cl. He has become what he always wanted to be.Non-fin,bare inf.cl. The only thing I did was tell him to go away.Non-fin,to-inf.-S  My advice is to withdraw.+for +S The best plan is for you to go by train. Non-fin,-ing cl -S What I don't enjoy is standing in queues. +S What most people prefer is  other doing/for others to do the work 

.2.THE COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBJECT (Co)  

2.1.Syntactic and semantic features  

*The Object Complement is the constituent that completes the predicate when certain verbs such as find,make and appointlead us to specify some characteristic of the Direct Object.The Co is normally placed immediately after the direct object.You (S)are making (P)me (Od) angry (Co). You (S) aren't going to like (P) me (Od) angry (Co). 

 *There is a typically number agreement between the Direct Object and the nominal group realising the Object Complement,as in :Circumstances (S)have made (P) the brothers (Od) enemies (Co).But there are occasional exceptions -expressions of size,shape,colour,hight,etc. You haven't made the sleeves the same length 

* Sometimes a Co realised by a prepositional phrase (The burglars left the house in a mess) is similar in meaning to an adjectival complement (The burglars left the house untidy).We can distinguish its status as Complement from the superficially similar realisation by an optional Adjunct (in five minutes in The burglars left the house in five minutes) by the intensive relationship linking the Od and its complement .This can be tested by paraphrase with be(The house was in a mess: 

*The house was in five minutes) 

.2.2Realisations of the Object Complement  

* Attributive Object Complements can be realised by: AdjG A sleeping pill will rapidly make you drowsy NG His friends consider him  a genius.Finite nominal cl. Dye you hair whatevercolour you like. Non-finite -en cl. The authorities had the demonstrators placed under house arrest. 

*Nominal Co elements are sometimes introduced by the the prepositions as or for, and are then analysed as `oblique' Object Complements. That is,the relationship between the NG and the verb is not direct, but mediated by a preposition.Some verbs require this; with others such as consider it is optional: as+NG Party members regard him as the best candidate. Or +NG Dou you take me for a complete idiot? 

 

ADJUNCTS  

1.SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES 

 *In contrast with the most central  clausal constituents, which are realised only once in a clause-there is one subject/direct  and indirect object /predicator/subject or object complement per clause - it is common to find a number of adjuncts in a single clause. (If at all possible) I'll see you (tomorrow) (after the show)(with Pete and Susan) (outside the main entrace) 

*Adjuncts can be added to any of the basic clause structures : SP(A) The bells rang all day long. SPOd(A) Tom hired a car at Doncaster. SPOp(A) You must allow for delays in holiday periods.SPOiOd(A) He sends me flowers through Interflora. SPCs(A) The weather is rather unpredictable in this parts. SPOdCo(A) They elected her Miss Universe in Miami. 

*Whereas the more central elements of clause structure typically  have fixed places in the clause, many adjuncts are characterised by their flexibility as regards position: Hastily she hid the letter. She hastily hid the letter. She hid the letter hastily 

* Semantically,adjuncts represent circumstances , specifications and commnets of many different  types. A further characteristic of adjuncts is the tendency of different types of meanings to be expressed by different adjuncts in a single clause,not as coordianted realisations of a single adjunctive element, but as separate, multiple adjuncts: Suprisingly (stance),she almost (degree) forget to set the alarm clock last night (time). 

 

2.MAIN CLASSES OF ADJUNCTS  

*Adjuncts (A) are grouped into 3 main classes according to their function in the clause: circumstantial clause, stance adjuncts and connective adjuncts.  

*a 4th group consists of operator-related adjuncts.Certain single adverbs and adverbial groups which can function as adjuncts of usuality (usually),frequency (sometimes,never),degree (just),modality (propbably),and aspectuality (still,yet,already),among others ,relate closely to the verb.These tend to be placed near the finite operator (We have just finished: she is probably waiting). 

2.1.Circumstantial Adjuncts  

*Circumstantial adjuncts provide details about the action or state described by the verb,and answer such questions as where?when?how?why? and occasionally what? as in What do you want it for ? What did he die of ?  

*Of all the types of adjunct,the circumstantials are the ones most similar to clause constituents: like subject and o object  they may be made the focus of a cleft. So in the example Tom bought a new car last month, we may highlight each element except the verb,including the adjunct of time .Other types of circumstantial adjunct don't pass this test,however: It was last month that Tom bought a new car. (adjunct) It was a new car that Tom bought last month. (object) It was Tom who bought a new car last month. (subject)  

*It was propbably/*usually/*surprisingly/*still that Tom bought a new car last month 

2.2 Realisations of the Circumstantial Adjuncts  

* Circumstantial adjuncts sre realised by a wide variety of units: She called me yesterday. (Adverb)She called me to late. (AdvG)She called me from the office. (PP)She called me this morning. (NG)She called me while I was out. (Finite clause)She called to tell me the news.( Non-fin, to-inf.cl)She called me,using her mobile. (Non-fin,-ing cl.)She called me,scared out wits. (Non-fin ed cl. )Afraid to leave the house, she called me.(Verbless clause) 

2.3.Circumstantials functioning as central clause elements (with the status of Complements)  

*Location in place or time after the verb of position such as be,stay,live,lie,etc.,as in:We live in troubled times.The farm is situated in a valley. 

*Extent in time or place with verbs such as take,as in The journey takes several days,or last,as in The performance lasts (for) 3 hours 

.*Direction and Goal after verbs of movement such as go,come or of movement+manner such as fly, as in We flew south (Direction), We flew to New York (Goal). 

* Source in She tiptoed out of the bedroom.We flew form London. 

* Manner with behave as in She is behaving rather strangely 

.2.4.Stance Adjuncts  

*These express the speaker's evaluation or comment on the content of the message, or the viewpoint adopted. Syntactically, they often remain somewhat separate form the clause , since their message refers to the whole  of the clause or sentence. They are usually found before the clause or  after it. Naturally,he spoke to me when he saw me.He spoke to me when he saw me,naturally. He naturally spoke to me when he saw me. He spoke to me,naturally,when he saw me.*Stance adjuncts are of 3 main kinds: epistemic,evidential and evaluative. A.Epistemic stance adjuncts - Do you believe me ?Of course I do. These express the speaker's opinion regarding the validity of the content, commenting on the certainty,doubt,possibility and obviousness of the preposition: Undoubtedly,he si the finest pianist alive today.Obviously,he'll rely on you even more now.B.Evidential adjuncts-Apparently,the picture is a fake.These signal the source of knowledge or information. Sources range form the speaker's  own experience or belief (In my view/In my experience)to the beliefs or accounts of others (According to…In the words of…and finally hearsay-supposedly,apparently): According to the weather forecast , there's a hurricane on the way.C.Evaluative adjuncts-Amazingly, he won a gold medal.These are attitudinal,reflecting the subjective or objective attitude of the speaker towards the content and sometimes also  towards the addressee: Surely,you can make up your own mind! Broadly speaking,the Health Service is satisfactory. (objective) Unfortunately,our team didn't win. (subjective)D.Style and domain adjuncts Style adjuncts are the speaker's comment on the way s/he is speaking (honestly,frankly,confidentially).Domain adjuncts signal from what viewpoint the message is orientated (technologically,legally,saleswise).Quite frankly,it seems to me a lot of bullshit.Medically,the project has little to recommend it 

.2.5.Realisatons of the Stance Adjunct  

*Stance adjuncts can be realised by adverbs,prepositional phrases,finite and non-finite clauses: Adverbs:surely,obviously,frankly,honestly,confidentially,hopefully,propapbly. PPs:in fact,in reality,at a rough guess, by any chance ,of course. Non-fin cl:to be honest,to tell the truth,strictly speaking. Fin.cl: if I may be frank with you…;don't take this personally,but… 

2.6.Connective Adjuncts  

*These tell us how the speaker or writer understands the semantic connections between 2 utterances ,or parts of an utterance,while indicating the semantic relationship holding between them: The hotel was rather noisy.On the other hand,it wasn't expensive (contrast). They are not therefore elements of structure,but connectors of structure:Between groups:Lord Shaftesbury was a persuasive speaker and furthermore a great pioneer of sicial reform. Between clauses: the students are on strike,nevertheless,the examinations will not be cancelled. Between sentences: He has been undergoing treatment for asthma since he was a boy.Consequently,never went in for sports.Between paragraphs: In addition to all this…First of all…In conclusion..  

* Semnatically,many different types of connections can be expressed. -additive:besides,in the same way,what's more,moreover,plus (AmE),as well also.- contrast:instead,on the contrary,on th eother hand,nevertheless,rather,yet.-casual:for,because,so,therefore,then,in that case,consequently,thus.-temporal:first,then,next,after that,finally,at once. 

 

AMBISYLLABIC (of a single speech soundor cluster) shared phonetically by two contiguous syllables, as the single n -sound of any  or the pl -cluster of grappling.  

COALESCENCE The act or state of growing together, as similar parts; the act of uniting by natural affinity or attraction; the state of being united; union; concretion. 

Triphthong - is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement of the articulator or from one vowel to another that passes over a third. (e.g. [auə] - hour

 

6. Diphthongs - (gliding vowel); is a contour vowel, that is a unitary vowel that changes quality during its pronounciation or „glides” with a smooth movement of the tongue from one articulation to another. 

 

ALLOMORPHY In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound without changing meaning. The term allomorph explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes. 

LABIALISATION The modification of an articulation by contraction of the lip opening. 

LAISON An instance or a means of communication between different groups or units of an organization, especially in the armed forces. 

 

Place of articulation: 

1.BILABIAL(p,b,m) -  two lips are brought together 

2.LABIO-DENTAL(f,v) - the lower lip is raised against the upper teeth 

3.DENTAL(θ,ð) - the lip of the tongue is raised against the upper teeth or put on between the upper and lowe teeth 

4.ALVEOLAR(t,d,n,l,s,z) - the tip and blade or the blade only of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge 

5.POST-ALVEOLAR(r) - the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the back part of the alveolar ridge 

6.PALATE ALVEOLAR (∫,ʒ, ʧ, dʒ) - the blade or the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with the alveolar rigde and there is the same time a rising of the front of the tongue 

7.PALATAL (j) - the front of the tongue articulate with the hard palate 

8VELAR(k,g, ŋ) - the back of the tongue articulate with the soft palate 

9.UVULAR- the back of the tongue articulate with the uvular 

10.GLOTTAL(h,  ) - the postruction causing friction but not vibration between the vocal folds 

11.RETROFLEX- the tip of the tongue is curled back to articulare with the part of the hard palate immiediately behind the alveolar ridge. 

 

Manner of articulation: 

1.COMPLETE CLOSURE 

a)plosive(p,b,t,d,k,g) - a complete closer at some point in the vocal track is made behind which the air pressure builds up and is suddenly realise 

b)affricate (ʧ,   ) - a complete closer at some point in the mouth is made behind which the air pressure builds up.The separation of the organs is slower comared to that of the closive so that friction is the characteristic cesond element of the sound. 

c)nasal stops (m,n,ŋ) - a complete closer at some point in the mouth is made but the soft palate being lowered the air is escapes through the nose 

2.INTERMITTENT CLOSURE 

a)trial/roll - a serious of rapid intermittent made by a flexible organ on a form services 

b)flap -this is a single side rapid contact mage by a flexible organ on a form services 

3.PARTIAL CLOSURE 

a)lateral(l)-a porcial closure is made of some point in the mouth the air-stream being allowed to escape on one or both side of the contact 

4.NARROWING 

a)fricate (f,v,s,z,h, ʃ ,ʒ, θ,ð)  - two organs are closed to each other to such an extent that the air passed through between them with friction 

b)approximonts (w,j,r)-articulators are closed but there is no friction 

 

DERIVATION the most common word-formation process;-prefixation (be-,co-,dis-,ex-,mis-,re-, un- etc)suffixation (-ate,-ation,-er,-ing,-ist,-ment,-ness,-ship etc.).Derivational changes: Verb>Noun (don-ation),writ-er,typ-ist,govern-ment), Verb>Adj (read-able,writ-ing,act-ive), Noun>Verb (colon-ise,regul-ate), Noun>Adj (tradition-al,child-lish,care-less,trouble-some), Adj>Verb (active-ate,modern-ise),Adj>Noun (brav-ery,hard-ship,dark-ness), Adj>Adv (usual-ly,proud-ly), Adj>Adj(blu-ish), Verb>Verb (chatt-er)  

Conversion- zero derivation,functional shift- a change in the function of a word ( when a noun starts to be used as a verb (paper,bottle,butter), a verb becomes a noun (guess,must,spy) ,or an adjective (see-through),an adjective becames a verb (dirty,empty,total) or a noun (crazy,nasty) etc.Head of department(Noun)>to head of department (Verb);a slow train (Adj):go slow (Adv)>to slow the car (Verb)  

 

COMPOUNDING-formation of new lexemes from two or more potential stems.Division of compound nouns according to semantic criteria:*endocentric  one lement of the compound determines another,usually the first element is modifying .The second is the head e.g. armchair (kind of chair),bookcase (kind of case),casebook (a kind of book), a fishing rod (rod),city museum but also son-in-law*exocentric none of the elements  determines the other e.g. pickpocket,make-up *appositional both elements contribute to the meaning e.g. boyfriend,maidservant 

 

COINAGE  The invention of new terms(invented trade names or company's products which become general terms) - aspirin,Kleenex,Teflon,Xerox 

 

COMMONIZATION ( EPONYMY) - words derived from names of people or places :sandwich, lync, boycott, derby,bobby,platonic,china 

 

CLIPPING- a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form ;front of the words: planu,bus,phone;,back of the words: info,lab,pop,porn,bike,mike,bra,ad,perm);front and back of the word (flu,fridge);middle of the word (vegan,maths)  

 

BLENDING -combining of two separate forms to produce a singlr new term,usually the beginning of one word and the ending of the otherchunnel,somg,motel,workaholic,brunch,Oxbridge) 

 

 ACRONYMS- formed from the initial letters of a set of words.They are pronounced in two ways:1)pronunciation consists of the set of letters (TV,VCR,CD,DJ,VIP,BMX,OK) 2)pronounced as single words ( NATO,NASA, UNESCO, AIDS, laser,radar, scuba). One of the types of backformation are hypocorisms -first a longer word is reduced to one syllable and then -y or -ie is added to the end (telly,barbie,bookie,brekky,Aussie,hankie) 

 

 BACKFORMATION -specialized type of reduction.A word of one type(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of a different type(usually a verb) editor>edit, beggar>beg, television>televise option>opt, babysitter> babysit 

 

MIXED TYPES -  more then one process may be at work to create a particular word ( deli < delicatessen (borrowing,clipping), to snowball <snow, ball   (compounding, conversion), waspish<White Anglo-Saxon Protestant(acryonym,derivation) 

 

FREE MORPHEMES -LEXICALboy,car,sllep,lullaby,goodFUNCTIONAL and,but,when,because,on,near,above,he,she,I 

BOUND MORPHEMES dis-,un-,pre-,ir-,-s,-s',-ment,-ishINFLECTIONAL walk-walking,drop-dropped,dog-dogs DERIVATIONAL kind-kindness (Adj>Noun)inform-information;govern-government (Verb>Noun),but also:reliable-unreliable (Adj>Adj),kind-kindly (Adj>Adv)  

STEM hospital (root and stem);hospitalize (stem for hospitalized);work (root)+shop (root)> workshop (stem)>workshops  

AFFIXESPREFIXES ex-,in-,un- SUFFIXES -able,-er,-ist,-ly,-ness  

PRODUCTIVITY -er suffixation, -ed tense ending vs. -en plurals  

BOUND ROOTS (BOUND STEMS) -mit, ceive;remit,permit,submit,commit,receive,perceive, conceive;also:disgusted,incest,inert 

ALLOMORPHS context -phonologically conditioned allomorphs -when their form is dependent (conditioned) on the adjacent phonemes /a/ an,plural morphemes /s/,/i/,/iz/ dogs,cats,dishes;past tense morpheme /t/,/d/,/id/ looked,showed,tended;a plural morpheme can be realized differently (cats,but also men,oxen,deer,children-the difference between the singular and the plural is signated in a way that departs from the regular pattern or is not signated at all);suppletion -two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis (suppletiveforms:go-went) 

 

Morphology:the set of rules governing the interwal structure of words,the study of their free and bound forms,their modification in relation to one another in a specific language. 

Morpheme:the smallest,most elemental unit of a language which has a grammatical function and an independent meaning-a minimal meaningful unit.The term is derived from the Greek word morphe meaning form. 

 

Types of morphemes: 

1.Free morphemes:independent meaningful units. 

Lexical-open class of morphemes which can occur by themselves as independent words and carry the `content' of message we convey(boy,car,sleep,good) 

Functional-closed class of functional words,usually conjunctions,prepositions,articles and pronouns,which can also occur by themselves(and,but,when,because,on,near) 

2.Bound morphemes-closed class of morphemes which can only occur attached to other morphemes and not by themselves(dis-,un-,pre-,ir-,-s,-ment,-ish) 

Inflectional-change the form of a word in order to express its relationship to other words in the sentence,never changing its grammatical category(walk-walking;drop-dropped;dog-dogs) 

Derivational-derive new words and can change the category or grammatical class of words(kind-kindness[adj>noun];inform-information[verb>noun]) 

 

Root-the smallest simple form from which a complex form can be derived.It cannot be further divided 

Stem-any form to which an affix can be added 

Affixes-morphemes bound in a particular position: 

-prefixes:occur before other morphemes(ex-,in-,un-) 

-suffixes:occur after other morphemes(-able,-er,-ist,-ly,-ness) 

-infixes:morphemes which are conjoined to other morphemes by inserting them into a morpheme 

Productavity:some affixes are more productive than others ex.:-er suffixation, -ed tense ending vs. -en plurals. 

Bound roots(bound stems)-stems that never occur alone,like -mit and -ceive which were productive in Latin,but their origins were obstructed by time and borrowings into English(remit,permit,submit,commit) 

Allomorphs:a number of variants or alternate phonetic forms of a morpheme,depending on the context. 

-phonologically conditioned allomorphs-when their form is dependent on the adjacent phonemes 

-a plural morpheme can be realized differently(cats,but also men,oxygen,deer,children-the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular or is not signaled at all) 

-suppletion-two forms related by a morphological rule cannot be explained as being related on a phonological basis. 

 

Phonology- is the study of how sounds are organised and used In natural languages 

Phoneme-is the smallest contrastive until in the sound system of a language 

Allophones-is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language 

Nasals - sounds produced with full oral closure but lowered velum so that the air is realized through the nose 

Stops-sounds produced with full oral closure and raised velum. The air is released through the mouth after sudden opening of articulation(lips or tongue) 

Fricatives- sounds produced with audible friction through narrow opening of the mouth. 

Velarisation-the back of the tongue is considerably raised toward the soft palate. Contact of the alveolar ridge is primary articulation is raised it's called secondary articulation. The symbol of velarisation is the mark [-] through the middle of the symbol.  

Obstruent - a natural class of sounds to which fricatives and stops to stop together; the characteristic feature is obstructed somewhere; this sounds act together on phonological rules  

Aspiration-a period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel 

Initial nasals - are shorter than nasals in terms of length. Also on the other word syllable initial consonants are shorter than syllable final consonants. 

Dark l- 

Clear l- 

diphthong- a kind of vowel in which occur a charge of quality 

peak - a centre of syllable which has no or little obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud (it consists of a vowel) 
onset - these are consonants which precede the peak 
coda - these are consonants which follow the peak 

 



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