Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (2008), 290 302. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Printed in the USA.
©
Copyright 2008 Division 35, American Psychological Association. 0361-6843/08
BORDERLINE PERSONALITY TRAITS AND INTIMATE
PARTNER AGGRESSION: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTISITE,
CROSS-GENDER ANALYSIS
Denise A. Hines
Clark University
Although research has consistently shown that men and women use intimate partner aggression (IPA) at approximately
equal rates, there is little empirical research on whether the predictors of IPA are the same for men and women. The
current study investigated whether borderline personality (BP) differentially predicted the use of IPA for men and
women across 67 university sites from around the world. Results showed that BP predicted several forms of IPA and
that gender did not moderate the association between IPA and BP. Although the strength of the association between
IPA and BP significantly differed across sites, it was in the predicted direction for the overwhelming majority of sites.
Implications of these results and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Intimate partner aggression (IPA) is typically considered to over a 30-year period (Archer, 2000) and is further con-
consist of physical, emotional, and/or sexual aggression firmed by the dramatic rise in women s arrests and pros-
any one of these in and of themselves can constitute IPA, ecution for domestic violence in states across the nation
as can any combination of two or all three. Since the ad- since the inception of mandatory arrest policies (Buzawa
vent of research into IPA in the early 1970s, there has been & Buzawa, 2002). Although there is an abundance of re-
evidence that both women and men use physical and psy- search showing that men and women use approximately
chological IPA at rates that are approximately equal (e.g., equal rates of physical IPA, there is considerably less re-
Gelles, 1974), whereas women s use of sexual IPA is typi- search on whether the prediction of IPA is equivalent for
cally less than men s (e.g., Cantos, Neidig, & O Leary, 1994; men and women.
Hines & Saudino, 2003; Swan & Snow, 2002). Moreover,
several studies have shown that women and men initiate
IPA and Borderline Personality
physical IPA at equal rates and that, in 25% of violent re-
lationships, only the women had been physically aggressive
Few researchers have investigated whether there are gen-
within the previous year. In 25% of violent relationships,
der differences in the extent to which personality dysfunc-
only the man had been physically aggressive within the pre-
tion predicts various forms of IPA, even though there is a
vious year, and in 50% of violent relationships, both part-
growing body of research showing that criminal behavior
ners were physically aggressive (Carrado, George, Loxam,
and physical IPA perpetration are manifestations of per-
Jones, & Templar, 1996; Demaris, 1992; Hines & Saudino,
sonality traits (e.g., Krueger, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2000) and
2003; Morse, 1995; Stets & Straus, 1990). The equivalent
dysfunction (e.g., Holtzworth-Munroe, Meehan, Herron,
rates of physical IPA by men and women has recently been
Rehman, & Stuart, 2000) in men. One personality dysfunc-
confirmed by a meta-analysis of dozens of studies of IPA
tion that is related to the use of IPA in men, and may be for
women, is borderline personality (BP). The term BP will be
used here to refer to traits of Borderline Personality Disor-
Denise A. Hines, Department of Psychology, Clark University.
der (BPD) that do not necessarily meet diagnostic criteria.
This work was supported by the National Institute of Mental
BP is somewhat synonymous with what Dutton (1995) calls
Health grant T32MH15161 and by the University of New Hamp-
 borderline personality organization, which is a less severe
shire. This article is part of the International Dating Violence
form of BPD and is exhibited by 11 15% of the population
Study. Other papers from that study can be downloaded from
(in comparison to 1.5 4% who exhibit BPD). Because BPD
http://pubpages.unh.edu/<"mas2.
is three times more common among women than among
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Denise A.
men (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), it is likely
Hines, Clark University, Department of Psychology, 950 Main
St., Worcester, MA 01610. E-mail: [e-mail] that BP is also more common among women, and it is,
290
Borderline Personality and Aggression 291
therefore, a good candidate for being associated with IPA and emotional support, and they often tried to emotionally
in women. merge with their partners. They used violence when they
According to Dutton (1995), the essential characteris- felt that their partners were becoming emotionally distant
tics of BP organization, from most important to least, are or when there was a threatened physical separation. They
 proclivity for intense, unstable interpersonal relationships viewed these actions as abandonment, and they evidenced
characterized by intermittent undermining of the signifi- a chronic fear of abandonment. Thus, violence was used to
cant other, manipulation, and masked dependency; an un- maintain a connection to their partners.
stable sense of self with intolerance of being alone and Stuart, Moore, Gordon, Ramsey, and Kahler (2006), in
abandonment anxiety; and intense anger, demandingness, a comparison of women arrested for IPA and mandated
and impulsivity, usually tied to substance abuse or promis- into treatment with women from the general population,
cuity (p. 570). People with BP organization experience re- found that the odds of women arrested for IPA having BPD
lationships in which their emotional needs go unmet, and were 20.3 times greater than women in the general popu-
they do not have the skills to assert their needs in a healthy lation. Comparison studies of men and women mandated
way. Frustrations can increase when they do not get what into treatment for IPA also show evidence that women who
they want or need in their intimate relationship. When they perpetrate IPA evidence BP, perhaps even at rates that are
perceive a possible loss of the relationship, people with BP higher than those of men. For example, the female batter-
organization, who have an intense fear of abandonment and ers in Henning, Jones, and Holdford s (2003) study were
loneliness, may experience intense anger or rage. Because significantly more likely to evidence BP patterns than the
people with BP organization do not have the requisite skills male batterers (11.6% versus 2.8%).
to appropriately handle their anger, they are at a high likeli- Although there is evidence among clinical samples that
hood of physically lashing out. In addition, because people women with BP might be at greater risk of using IPA,
with BP organization see their significant other as either all it is unknown whether these results would generalize to
good or all bad, at this stage they tend to devalue their part- nonclinical samples. The associations between BP and IPA
ners, further increasing the likelihood of IPA. In an effort in nonclinical samples are important to consider because
to keep their partners from abandoning them, they may most IPA never comes to the attention of authorities, yet
engage in further manipulative and controlling behaviors is still detrimental to the mental and physical health of
to keep them from leaving the relationship. Thus, people its victims (Straus & Gelles, 1990). In addition, although
with BP organization tend to have very intense, unstable BP predicts both physical and psychological IPA by men
relationships and identities (Dutton, 1995). and physical IPA by women, it is unknown whether these
Studies of men in batterer treatment programs support associations would generalize to sexual IPA by both genders
the notion that BP traits are a strong predictor of their use or psychological IPA by women.
of physical IPA (e.g., Dutton, 1995; Dutton & Browning, Moreover, IPA affects men and women in every region
1988; Dutton, Starzomski, & Ryan, 1996; Hart, Dutton, & of the world (World Health Organization, 2005; Straus &
Newlove, 1993; Hastings & Hamberger, 1988; Holtzworth- the International Dating Violence Research Consortium,
Munroe, Bates, Smutzler, & Sandin, 1997; Mauricio, Tein, 2004), and studies show that BPD is evident all over the
& Lopez, 2007; Oldham et al., 1985) and psychological world and is one of the most common types of personal-
IPA (Dutton & Starzomski, 1993; Mauricio et al., 2007; ity disorders worldwide (Loranger et al., 1994). However,
Oldham et al., 1985). Their use of IPA is usually impul- there is little research demonstrating a link between BP
sive and a function of their mood rather than any external and IPA in non-Western cultures and countries other than
stimulus. Men suffering from BP organization tend to be the United States. This possible link in other cultures and
emotionally volatile. They are angry, jealous, and depressed countries is important to investigate because it could point
men, who tend to use IPA when there is some sort of per- toward either similar or different prevention and interven-
ceived  socioemotional distance between them and their tion techniques in other cultures. Moreover, if there is a
female partners (Dutton, 1995). difference among cultures in the association between BP
The majority of this research has been conducted on clin- and IPA, possible reasons for these differences should be
ical samples of male batterers, and we do not know whether explored. For example, it is possible that the association
these findings would generalize to women. However, pre- between BP and IPA is stronger in cultures in which IPA is
liminary evidence suggests that some women who use IPA not culturally accepted, but weaker in cultures where IPA
might be suffering from BP. For example, Margolies and is more common and acceptable.
Leeder (1995) provided a clinical description of lesbian The purpose of the current study was to evaluate:
batterers in their intervention program. This description
mirrored symptoms of BP. The women in this study  ex- (1) Whether BP is a significant predictor of physi-
hibited a striking propensity for dichotomous thinking and cal, psychological, and sexual IPA among men and
feeling. They were prone to extreme views and hyperbole, women in a nonclinical population. Given the pre-
dividing the world into black and white (p. 144). They vious research establishing a positive association be-
were overly dependent on their partners for both attention tween physical and psychological IPA and BP among
292 HINES
men and women in clinical samples (e.g., Dutton & relationships and that it would include sensitive questions
Starzomski, 1993; Stuart et al., 2006), it is expected concerning attitudes, beliefs, and experiences in a relation-
that this association will also generalize to nonclinical ship, including questions on sexual behavior. They were
samples. guaranteed anonymity, and they were told that the session
(2) Whether there are gender differences in the pre- would take about an hour. Students completed the ques-
diction of physical, psychological, and sexual IPA tionnaire at their own pace and deposited the completed
from BP. Previous research among male and fe- (or if they chose, blank) questionnaire in a box and left the
male batterers who were arrested for IPA (Hen- room when they finished. A debriefing form was provided
ning et al., 2003) suggests that BP may be more as they turned in their questionnaire. It explained the study
common among female batterers than male bat- in more detail and provided names and telephone numbers
terers. However, other empirical research of men of local mental health services and community resources,
and women in community, nationally representa- such as services for battered women.
tive, clinical, and birth cohort samples (e.g., Busch The percentage of students who chose to participate and
& Rosenberg, 2004; Capaldi & Owen, 2001; Carney deposited a completed questionnaire ranged from 42% to
& Buttell, 2004; Giordano, Millhollin, Cernkovich, 100%, with most participation rates ranging from 85% to
Pugh, & Rudolph, 1999; Henning et al., 2003; Mag- 95%. A detailed description of the study, including the
dol, Moffitt, Caspi, & Silva, 1998; Medeiros & Straus, questionnaires and all other key documents, is available on
2006) suggests that there is gender symmetry in the the study website: http://pubpages.unh.edu/<"mas2.
variables that predict IPA, including various person- The completed questionnaires were examined for ques-
ality traits and dysfunctions. Therefore, it is hypoth- tionable response patterns, such as reporting an injury from
esized that the association between BP and IPA will dating violence but not reporting an assault as having oc-
be similar for men and women. curred, or reporting an attack on a partner with a knife or
(3) Whether these associations hold constant across 67 gun 10 or more times in the past year. About 7.5% of the
sites from around the world. Because there has been original 15,321 cases were identified as questionable and
little to no cross-cultural research on the associa- were removed from the sample, leaving 14,252 students. In
tion between BP and IPA, no specific hypotheses addition, only students who were currently or recently (i.e.,
were made concerning whether these associations within the previous year) involved in a romantic relationship
would be consistent across sites. However, if differ- were instructed to complete the measure of dating aggres-
ences are found, reasons for such differences were sion; students who did not complete the measure of dating
planned. aggression (n = 3,152) were eliminated from the analy-
ses. Because of questionable data from the Iranian sample
that could not adequately be explained, the Iranian site was
METHOD eliminated from the analysis (n = 98). This procedure left a
sample of 14,154 students (4,054 men and 10,100 women).
Participants
A list of the sites involved is given in Table 5.
The data for this article were from the International Dat- Demographic characteristics of the sample are shown in
ing Violence Study (IDVS). The IDVS was conducted by Table 1. These characteristics are presented for the sample
members of a consortium of researchers at universities in overall and for each gender, and the sites that represented
various regions of the world. Consortium members volun- the high and low scores for each variable are also presented.
teered to become part of the study after hearing about the As shown for the men, sample sizes ranged from 4 men at
study at international family violence conferences, because the Calcutta, India site to 163 men at the Swedish site. The
of previous collaborations with the principal investigator, or mean length of relationship for the male sample was 12.70
through word of mouth. The questionnaires were usually months, close to 70% of the relationships were sexual, and
administered in classes taught by members of the consor- 95.8% of the men were involved in heterosexual intimate
tium and in other classes for which they could make ar- relationships. For women, the sample sizes ranged from
rangements. Thus, it was a convenience sample. Almost all 20 at the Calcutta, India site to 511 at the Swedish site.
of the classes were introductory-level psychology, sociology, Women reported an average relationship length of 15.08
and criminal justice studies courses; thus, the majority of months, sex was part of the relationship in 73.3% of the
the sample consisted of female college students. The data cases, and 98% of the women were involved in heterosexual
presented in the current analysis are from 67 university relationships.
sites around the world.
Questionnaires were distributed at the beginning of the
Measures
class period. The purpose of the study and that participa-
tion was entirely voluntary was explained orally and was also There was a core questionnaire that each member of
written on the cover page of the questionnaire. The students the IDVS Research Consortium translated. All consortium
were informed that the questionnaire was about dating members agreed to back-translate to maintain conceptual
Borderline Personality and Aggression 293
Table 1
Demographics
Total Men Women t or Ç2
n 14,154 4,054 10,100
High 674 163 511
(Gavle, Sweden) (Gavle, Sweden) (Gavle, Sweden)
Low 24 4 20
(Calcutta, India) (Calcutta, India) (Calcutta, India)
Individual Demographics
Age (M, SD) 23.12, 6.28 23.01, 5.56 23.16, 6.55 1.41
High 39.06, 9.71 38.09, 10.04 39.98, 9.14
(Liege, Belgium) (German-speaking Switzerland) (Liege, Belgium)
Low 18.65, 1.36 18.86, 1.60 18.45, 1.04
(St. Petersburg 2, Russia) (St. Petersburg 2, Russia) (St. Petersburg 2, Russia)
Social Desirability (M, SD) 2.62, 0.36 2.59, 0.35 2.63, 0.36 6.49"""
High 2.91, 0.42 2.88 2.94, 0.40
(Merida, Venezuela) (Cluj-Napcoa, Romania, (Merida, Venezuela)
SD = 0.39; Northern
Mexico, SD = 0.35;
Merida, Venezuela,
SD = 0.46)
Low 2.39, 0.38 2.34, 0.38 2.39, 0.36
(Mito, Japan) (Washington, DC, USA) (Mito, Japan)
Borderline Personality (M, SD) 1.98, 0.49 2.00, 0.45 1.97, 0.50 3.96"""
High 2.42, 0.44 2.29, 0.44 2.48, 0.44
(Taiwan) (Beijing, China) (Taiwan)
Low 1.58, 0.41 1.52, 0.34 1.59, 0.42
(Leiden, Netherlands) (Leiden, Netherlands) (Leiden, Netherlands)
Relationship Demographics
Relationship Length 14.40, 8.92 12.70, 9.01 15.08, 8.80 14.31"""
in months (M, SD)
High 19.46, 7.27 19.13, 8.01 19.90, 7.01
(Gavle, Sweden) (Leiden, Netherlands) (Gavle, Sweden)
Low 6.21, 6.71 6.04, 5.80 6.38, 7.57
(St. Petersburg 2, Russia) (St. Petersburg 2, Russia) (St. Petersburg 2, Russia)
% Sex in Relationship 72.1% 69.2% 73.3% 24.30"""
High 97.8% 98.2% 99.0%
(Gavle, Sweden & (Quebec 2, Canada) (Freiburg, Germany)
Freiburg, Germany)
Low 11.8% 5.9% 14.5%
(Varsanyi, Hungary) (Varsanyi, Hungary) (Varsanyi, Hungary)
% Heterosexual Relationships 97.4% 95.8% 98.0% 55.47"""
High 99.6% 100% 100%
(Cluj-Napcoa, Romania) (10 sites) (9 sites)
Low 92.7% 68.2% 92.4%
(Jackson, MS, USA) (Jackson, MS, USA) (Washington, DC, USA)
Intimate Partner Aggression
% Any Physical Aggression 29.0% 23.9% 31.0% 70.14"""
High 49.6% 54.7% 54.8%
(New York, NY, USA) (New York, NY, USA) (Vladivostok, Russia)
Low 15.4% 9.4% 11.6%
(Houston, TX, USA) (Hamilton, Canada) (Houston, TX, USA)
% Severe Physical Aggression 10.4% 8.0% 11.3% 34.95"""
High 24.4% 28.6% 25.0%
(New York, NY, USA) (Capetown, South Africa) (Crete 2, Greece)
Low 1.8% 0% 2.0%
(Gavle, Sweden) (Calcutta, India; Singapore; (Amsterdam, Netherlands)
Hamilton, Canada; Malta)
(continued)
294 HINES
Table 1 (continued)
Total Men Women t or Ç2
Types of Physical Aggression 0.69, 1.47 0.54, 1.29 0.76, 1.53 8.69"""
(M, SD)
High 1.57, 2.22 2.29, 3.95 1.65, 2.32
(New York, NY, USA) (Capetown, South Africa) (New York, NY, USA)
Low 0.33 0.13, 0.42 0.23, 0.78
(Portugal, SD = .98; (Hamilton, Canada) (Houston, TX, USA)
Malta, SD = .82)
% Any Psychological Aggression 72.6% 65.7% 75.3% 133.96"""
High 91.0% 100% 90.9%
(Washington, DC, USA) (Calcultta, India) (Washington, DC, USA)
Low 45.7% 36.7% 42.9%
(St. Petersburg 1, Russia) (Shanghai) (St. Petersburg 1, Russia)
% Severe Psychological 24.0% 20.9% 25.3% 30.47"""
Aggression
High 57.7% 50.8% 60.3%
(Hong Kong 3) (Hong Kong 1) (Hong Kong 3)
Low 8.3% 0% 7.6%
(Gavle, Sweden) (Winnipeg, Canada) (Gavle, Sweden)
Types of Psychological 2.04, 1.82 1.72, 1.76 2.17, 1.82 13.55"""
Aggression (M, SD)
High 3.03, 1.98 2.92, 1.51 3.07, 1.98
(New York, NY, USA) (Washington, DC, USA) (New York, NY, USA)
Low 1.20, 1.60 0.88, 1.58 1.25, 1.72
(St. Petersburg 1, Russia) (Shanghai, China) (St. Petersburg 1, Russia)
% Any Sexual Aggression 23.5% 29.3% 21.2% 105.00"""
High 60.9% 65.3% 58.3%
(Merida, Venezuela) (Merida, Venezuela) (Merida, Venezuela)
Low 5.2% 4.6% 4.7%
(Leiden, Netherlands) (Hong Kong 1) (Leiden, Netherlands)
% Forced Sexual Aggression 1.7% 2.2% 1.5% 7.71""
High 7.2% 14.3% 10.5%
(Louisiana, USA) (Capetown, South Africa) (Dar Salaam, Tanzania)
Low 0%0%0%
(7 sites) (25 sites) (15 sites)
Types of Sexual Aggression 0.34, 0.73 0.47, 0.89 0.29, 0.64 12.18"""
(M, SD)
High 0.86, 0.98 1.11, 1.15 0.93, 1.26
(Merida, Venezuela) (New York, NY, USA) (Dar Salaam, Tanzania)
Low 0.06, 0.25 0.07, 0.26 0.05, 0.21
(Leiden, Netherlands) (Hong Kong 3) (Leiden, Netherlands)
Note. Gender differences between the demographic variables were explored using chi-square or t tests, where appropriate. The Social Desirability
and Borderline Personality scales ranged from 1 to 4. The maximum number of types of physical aggression was 12; the maximum number of types of
psychological aggression was 8, and the maximum number of types of sexual aggression was 7.
"" """
p < .01. p < .001.
equivalence (Straus, 1969) across the sites. This core ques- structs that were needed to test a theory of particular in-
tionnaire consisted of demographic items (e.g., gender, terest. For the current study, only the demographic infor-
gender of partner, whether sex was part of the relation- mation and questions pertaining to the use of IPA, BP, and
ship, age of participant, parents education and income, social desirability were used.
length of relationship), the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales
(CTS2; Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996),
IPA. The use of IPA was measured by the physical ag-
and the Personal and Relationships Profile (PRP; Straus,
gression, psychological aggression, and sexual aggression
Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1999). In addition,
scales of the CTS2. For each participant, the number of
the consortium members added questions to measure vari- different types of physically aggressive, psychologically ag-
ables that were uniquely important for their site or con- gressive, and sexually aggressive acts used in the previous
Borderline Personality and Aggression 295
year was computed. Participants indicated on a scale from Mouradian, 1999). With the current sample, the internal
0 to 6 how many times in the previous year they used the consistency reliability (Cronbach s alpha) was .74, with the
acts listed (0 = 0 times; 1 = 1 time; 2 = 2 times; 3 = 3 5 majority of sites having alphas of .70 or greater. Three sites
times; 4 = 6 10 times; 5 = 11 20 times; 6 = more than (St. Petersburg 2, South Africa, and Tanzania) had alphas
20 times). Following Moffitt et al. (1997), a count of the between .51 and .57; therefore, the results from these sites
different types of aggression for each scale was computed. should be viewed with caution. It is important to note that,
Moffitt et al. (1997) found that, statistically, the best way although the questions were derived from the DSM-IV def-
to measure severity of IPA was to count the number of dif- inition of BPD, this scale was not designed as a diagnostic
ferent types of acts used. A given participant could report tool. Thus, high scores on this subscale cannot necessarily
on up to 12 types of physical aggression, 8 types of psy- be interpreted as indicative of BPD. Table 1 presents the
chological aggression, and 7 types of sexual aggression. In average scores of the BP scale overall and for each gender,
the multilevel modeling analyses, the count of the number and it also presents the sites that represent the high and
of different types of physical, psychological, and sexual ag- low average scores for BP.
gression was used. Because these are count variables, the
models were estimated using a procedure that allows for Social desirability. Social desirability response bias has
the dependent variable to be of a Poisson distribution. been shown to be a stable cross-cultural phenomenon (e.g.,
To establish past-year prevalence rates of each form of Consalvi, 1972; Crowne & Marlowe, 1964; Mukherjee,
IPA for descriptive purposes, participants were coded as 1 1967; Tsushima, 1969), although recent research that has
(yes) if they reported using any of the physically, psycho- revisited this issue might be shedding some doubt on this
logically, or sexually aggressive acts listed in the CTS2 in (Middleton & Jones, 2000). Given that there is nonetheless
the previous year and 0 (no) if they reported using no acts a strong likelihood that, cross-culturally, social desirabil-
in the previous year. These acts included both minor and ity response bias could influence participants responses,
severe acts of IPA. Because severe physical, psychological, participants tendency to minimize socially undesirable be-
and sexual IPA are often a concern of researchers and ad- havior was controlled with the social desirability scale of
vocates in the field of IPA, participants were also coded, as the PRP. This 13-item scale includes behaviors and emo-
per CTS2 instructions, according to whether they reported tions that are slightly undesirable but true of most people,
using any severe physical (e.g., punching, kicking, beating such as  I sometimes try to get even rather than forgive
up) and psychological acts (e.g., threatening to hit or throw and forget. Participants indicated on a 4-point scale (1 =
something) and whether they reported forcing oral, anal, strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly
or vaginal sex (i.e., severe sexual aggression). The Physical, agree) the extent to which they agreed with each item. The
Psychological, and Sexual Aggression scales of the CTS2 items were then summed and divided by the number of
have been shown to demonstrate good cross-cultural con- items in the scale to obtain an average social desirability
struct validity and reliability, with overall alphas of .85, .74, score. The overall reliability of this scale was .68, and it
and .82, respectively. Typically, sites with low alpha coeffi- ranged from a low of .45 in Shanghai to a high of .80 in
cients were sites in which there was a low prevalence rate Vladivostok. Preliminary cross-cultural predictive validity
for that form of IPA, which reduces the inter-item correla- evidence is available as well: As expected, social desirability
tion of the scale (Straus, 2004). was a strong, negative predictor of the Antisocial Person-
ality scale (the cross-cultural validity of which has been
BP. BP traits were assessed using the BP scale of the established elsewhere; Hines & Straus, 2007; Lysova &
PRP. The BP scale is a 9-item scale based on BP features Hines, in press) for all sites in this study except Calcutta,
derived from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men- India. For the remaining sites, correlations ranged from
tal Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric As- -.38 to -.69, with an average correlation of -.52. Table 1
sociation, 1994), such as instability of self (e.g., I change presents the average scores of the social desirability scale
suddenly from being one kind of person to another) and re- overall and for each gender, and it also presents the sites
lationships (e.g., My relationships have big ups and downs), that represent the high and low average scores for social
emotional lability (e.g., My mood is always changing), aban- desirability.
donment anxiety (e.g., I d do almost anything to keep peo-
ple from leaving me), and threats of self-harm (e.g., I ve Socioeconomic status (SES). An SES variable was cre-
told others I will kill myself). Participants responded by in- ated for each site using three variables: father s education,
dicating their level of agreement with each item using a 4- mother s education, and family income. To create a variable
point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to4(strongly that measured the SES of each student that was relevant
agree). to the SES of others at the student s university, the SES
The nine items composing the scale were summed and variables at each site were transformed into z scores. The
divided by the total number of items to obtain a mean scale thus measures SES as the number of standard devi-
BP score. Previous research has shown that this scale ations each student was above or below the mean at their
demonstrates excellent validity and reliability (Straus & site.
296 HINES
Analyses. To test the research questions, a series of In the final series of multilevel models, three Slopes-as-
multilevel regression models were estimated. Multilevel re- Outcomes Models were estimated. Specifically, a Level 2
gression modeling is a technique that allows one to simul- (i.e., site-level) predictor, the prevalence of each form of
taneously consider both individual-level and group-level IPA, was added to investigate possible site-level influences
influences on a variable of interest without violating on the site differences observed in the association between
assumptions of independence (as would occur in the BP and the three forms of IPA.
individual-level analysis using site as an independent vari-
able) or losing valuable variability (as would occur in analy-
RESULTS
ses aggregating scores by sites). Multilevel modeling allows
one to examine how group influences interact with indi- Prevalence and Frequency of IPA
vidual characteristics by performing a series of nested lin-
The percentage of men and women who used physi-
ear models that take into account hierarchical structure
cal, psychological, and sexual IPA and the mean num-
(Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002).
ber of types of aggression were computed for the full
A series of models was estimated to investigate the hy-
data set and at each site. Summary data are presented in
potheses. Because the dependent variables were count vari-
Table 1.
ables, all of the models were estimated using a Poisson
model. Overdispersion was examined and found not to be
Prediction of IPA by BP
a problem. Control variables included one or more of the
following: gender, age, length of relationship, whether sex The multilevel models predicting the number of types of
was part of the relationship, sexual orientation, SES, and so- physical, psychological, and sexual IPA (dependent vari-
cial desirability response bias of the participant. If a control ables) from BP (independent variable) are presented in
variable did not significantly predict IPA, it was dropped Tables 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Inspection of the models in
from the model. The individual-level predictors included each of these tables indicates that, after controlling for gen-
the BP score of the participant and the interaction of BP der, age, relationship length, whether sex was part of the
and gender. The predictor variables were allowed to vary relationship, and social desirability, BP was a significant
across sites, and possible differences in the strength of the predictor of the number of types of physical, psychological,
association between IPA and BP were examined. For pur- and sexual IPA. For physical IPA (Table 2), the event rate
poses of brevity, only the final models will be displayed in ratio was 2.45, which indicates that, for every one-point
the Results section. increase of the four-point BP scale, the number of types
Table 2
Gender Interaction Model Predicting Number of Types of Physical Intimate Partner Aggression (IPA)
as a Function of Borderline Personality
Fixed Effects Coefficient SE t Ratio Event Rate Ratio
Outcome:
Number of Types of Physical IPA (Intercept), Å‚00 -1.92 0.31 -6.30""" 0.15
Covariates:
Gendera, Å‚10 0.42 0.17 2.40 1.51
Age, Å‚20 -0.03 0.01 -3.44""" 0.97
Relationship Length, Å‚30 0.03 0.01 14.04""" 1.04
Sex Part of the Relationshipb, Å‚40 0.36 0.05 7.27""" 1.43
Social Desirability, Å‚50 -0.70 0.06 -12.45""" 0.49
Predictors:
Borderline Personality, Å‚60 0.90 0.15 6.18""" 2.45
Borderline Personality × Gender Interaction, Å‚70 -0.09 0.08 -1.13 0.92
Random Effects Variance df Ç2
Site Mean, u0j 0.16 66 1403.67"""
Number of Types of Physical IPA Borderline Personality Slope, u6j 0.17 66 261.16"""
Number of Types of Physical IPA-Borderline × Gender Interaction Slope, u7j 0.02 66 208.60"""
Note. Number of types of Physical IPA is a count of the different types of physical IPA the participants reported using and can range
from 0 to 12. Gender, Age, Relationship Length, Sex Part of the Relationship, and Social Desirability are group mean centered
and constrained to have equal variances across sites. Borderline Personality and Borderline Personality × Gender Interaction are
group mean centered and allowed to vary across sites.
a
Gender: 1 = Male, 2 = Female
b
Sex Part of the Relationship: 1 = No, 2 = Yes.
"""
p < .001.
Borderline Personality and Aggression 297
Table 3
Gender Interaction Model Predicting Number of Types of Psychological Intimate Partner
Aggression (IPA) as a Function of Borderline Personality
Fixed Effects Coefficient SE t Ratio Event Rate Ratio
Outcome:
Number of Types of Psychological IPA (Intercept), Å‚00 -0.22 0.14 -1.55 0.80
Covariates:
Gendera, Å‚10 0.26 0.08 3.30"" 1.29
Age, Å‚20 -0.01 0.01 -3.99""" 0.99
Relationship Length, Å‚30 0.02 0.01 19.55""" 1.03
Sex Part of the Relationshipb, Å‚40 0.24 0.02 10.05""" 1.27
Social Desirability, Å‚50 -0.48 0.03 -17.85""" 0.62
Predictors:
Borderline Personality, Å‚60 0.42 0.07 5.74""" 1.52
Borderline Personality × Gender Interaction, Å‚70 -0.04 0.04 -1.02 0.96
Random Effects Variance df Ç2
Site Mean, u0j 0.03 66 763.50"""
Number of Types of Psychological IPA-Borderline Personality Slope, u6j 0.01 66 111.70"""
Number of Types of Psychological IPA-Borderline × Gender Interaction Slope, u7j 0.00 66 121.88"""
Note. Number of Types of Psychological IPA is a count of the different types of psychological IPA the participants reported
using and can range from 0 to 8. Gender, Age, Relationship Length, Sex Part of the Relationship, and Social Desirability
are group mean centered and constrained to have equal variances across sites. Borderline Personality and Borderline Person-
ality × Gender Interaction are group mean centered and allowed to vary across sites.
a
Gender: 1 = Male, 2 = Female
b
Sex Part of the Relationship: 1 = No, 2 = Yes.
"" """
p < .01. p < .001.
Table 4
Gender Interaction Model Predicting Number of Types of Sexual Intimate Partner Aggression
(IPA) as a Function of Borderline Personality
Fixed Effects Coefficient SE t Ratio Event Rate Ratio
Outcome:
Number of Types of Sexual IPA (Intercept), Å‚ -1.99 0.31 -6.46"" 0.14
00
Covariates:
Gendera, Å‚ -0.55 0.13 -4.12"" 0.58
10
Age, Å‚ -0.01 0.01 -2.15" 0.99
20
Relationship Length, Å‚ 0.01 0.01 5.78"" 1.01
30
Sex Part of the Relationshipb, Å‚ 0.95 0.09 10.39"" 2.58
40
Social Desirability, Å‚ -0.50 0.06 -8.55"" 0.61
50
Predictors:
Borderline Personality, Å‚ 0.45 0.11 3.94"" 1.56
60
Borderline Personality × Gender Interaction, Å‚ 0.02 0.06 0.24 1.02
70
Random Effects Variance df Ç2
Site Mean, u0j 0.23 66 994.74""
Number of Types of Sexual IPA-Borderline Personality Slope, u6j 0.19 66 185.21""
Number of Types of Sexual IPA-Borderline × Gender Interaction Slope, u7j 0.03 66 182.11""
Note. Number of Types of Sexual IPA is a count of the different types of sexual IPA the participants reported using and
can range from 0 to 7. Gender, Age, Relationship Length, Sex Part of the Relationship, and Social Desirability are group
mean centered and constrained to have equal variances across sites. Borderline Personality and Borderline Personality ×
Gender Interaction are group mean centered and allowed to vary across sites.
a
Gender: 1 = Male, 2 = Female
b
Sex Part of the Relationship: 1= No, 2 = Yes.
" ""
p < .05. p < .001.
298 HINES
of physical IPA used more than doubled. The event rate sexual IPA, respectively. For the BP physical IPA slope,
ratio for BP in the prediction of psychological IPA (Ta- the prevalence of physical IPA was a significant predictor,
ble 3) shows that, for every one-point increase on the BP ² = 0.01, SE = 0.01, T(65) = 2.65, p < .05, explaining
scale, the number of types of psychological IPA used in- 4% of the variance in the slopes among the sites. Thus,
creased by 52%. Finally, for every one-point increase on the association between physical IPA and BP was stronger
the BP scale, the number of types of sexual IPA increased
by 56% (Table 4). These models also tested whether the
Table 5
associations between BP and the three forms of IPA were
Slopes for Associations Between Intimate Partner
moderated by gender. As shown, for all three forms of IPA,
Aggression (IPA) and Borderline Personality at Each Site
the interaction of gender and BP was not a significant pre-
dictor of the number of types of the different forms of IPA.
Type of IPA
Thus, gender did not moderate the association between BP
Site Physical Psychological Sexual
and IPA.
Differences among the sites in the association between
Africa
BP and the number of types of the three forms of IPA are in-
South Africa, Cape Town 1.37 0.43 0.40
dicated by a significant Ç2 for the IPA BP slope. As shown
Tanzania, Dar Salaam 1.06 0.62 -0.08
in all three models, the Ç2 was significant, which means
Asia
that there was significant variance in the strength of the
China, Shanghai 0.37 0.47 0.37
association between BP and IPA among the sites. Table 5
China, Beijing 0.59 0.39 0.50
presents the slope estimates for the associations between
Hong Kong 1 0.48 0.37 0.90
BP and physical, psychological, and sexual IPA. Slope esti-
Hong Kong 2 0.09 0.36 0.11
mates provide an indication of the increase in the number of
Hong Kong 3 1.09 0.38 0.50
types of IPA at each site for every one-point increase on the India, Calcutta 0.58 0.45 0.64
India, Pune 0.49 0.40 -0.12
BP scale. Slope estimates close to zero would indicate that
Japan, Mito 0.56 0.45 -0.17
there was no association between IPA and BP. The larger
Singapore 0.92 0.45 0.56
the slope estimate, the greater the number of types of IPA
South Korea, Pusan 0.40 0.50 0.85
for each one-point increase in the BP scale. As shown, slope
Taiwan 0.43 0.45 0.41
estimates ranged from 0.09 (Hong Kong 2) to 1.50 (Hous-
Australia/New Zealand
ton, TX) for physical IPA; the mean slope estimate was 0.90
Australia, Adelaide 1.10 0.47 0.81
(SD = 0.35). For psychological aggression, slopes ranged
New Zealand, Christ Church 0.89 0.38 0.11
from 0.24 (Hungary) to 0.62 (Tanzania); the mean slope
Canada
estimate was 0.42 (SD = 0.07). Finally, slopes ranged from
Hamilton 0.80 0.43 0.58
-0.30 (Washington, DC) to 1.32 (Leiden, Netherlands) for
London 0.22 0.45 0.01
sexual IPA; the mean slope estimate was 0.45 (SD = 0.35).
Quebec 1 1.33 0.49 0.69
The models also tested whether there were differences
Quebec 2 0.91 0.43 0.46
among the sites in the moderating influence of gender. A
Toronto 1.02 0.45 0.64
significant Ç2 indicates that the moderating influence dif-
Winnipeg 1.05 0.37 0.23
fered among the sites. Tables 2 4 show that, for all three
Eastern Europe/Russia
forms of IPA, the moderating influence significantly dif-
Hungary, Varsanyi 0.57 0.24 0.22
fered among the sites; however, the percent of variance
Lithuania, Vilnius 0.67 0.36 0.55
among the sites ranged from <1% to 3%. Given that the
Romania, Cluj-Napoca 0.88 0.40 0.08
moderating influence overall was nonsignificant and there
Russia, Bernaul 0.88 0.46 0.44
was little practical variance among the sites, these slight Russia, St. Petersburg 1 0.80 0.53 0.46
Russia, St. Petersburg 2 1.08 0.53 0.63
differences were not explored.
Russia, Vladivostok 0.46 0.38 0.42
A final set of analyses examined whether the strength of
the association between BP and IPA was relatively weaker Latin America
Brazil, Sao Paulo 0.84 0.45 0.29
at sites in which there was increased general acceptance of
Guatemala 0.33 0.35 0.59
each form of IPA. Because we did not have a measure that
Mexico, Northern 0.63 0.42 0.46
directly tapped attitudes of acceptance of each form of IPA,
Venezuela, Merida 1.35 0.52 0.13
the prevalence of each form of IPA was used as a proxy for
Mediterranean/Middle East
attitudes; in other words, it was assumed that acceptance
Greece, Crete 1 1.22 0.47 0.93
of IPA would be greater at sites where IPA occurred more
Greece, Crete 2 1.49 0.28 0.66
frequently.
Israel, Emek Yezreel 1.35 0.45 1.06
The prevalence of physical, psychological, and sexual
Malta, Msida 1.42 0.51 0.08
IPA at each site was used as a Level 2 predictor for the
(continued)
association between BP and physical, psychological, and
Borderline Personality and Aggression 299
Table 5 (continued) symmetry (Straus, 2006) in the prediction of physical, psy-
chological, and sexual IPA by BP. Given the large sample
Type of IPA
size of the IDVS, if a gender difference existed, there was
Site Physical Psychological Sexual sufficient power to detect it. Thus, it seems that, for both
women and men, personality features that are consistent
USA
with BP, such as instability of self and relationships, ma-
Illinois 0.92 0.40 0.42
nipulation, self-harming behavior, fear of abandonment,
IN, Terre Haute 1.30 0.48 -0.04
anger, jealousy, impulsivity, and emotional volatility, are
Louisiana 0.80 0.40 0.02
risk factors for their perpetration of IPA. Nonetheless, it is
Mississippi 0.56 0.35 0.36
important to consider that the current sample was a conve-
MS, Jackson 0.90 0.32 0.18
nience sample of college students, and therefore, a gender
NH, Durham 1 0.37 0.36 0.51
NH, Durham 2 1.01 0.36 0.51 difference may yet be found in clinical samples of men and
NY, New York 0.70 0.32 0.25
women. Given the research thus far with clinical samples
OH, Cincinnati 1.15 0.39 0.47
(e.g., Henning et al., 2003), it is likely that, if a gender dif-
Pennsylvania 0.75 0.30 0.15
ference is found, women who engage in IPA would be more
TN, Knoxville 1.07 0.41 0.61
likely to evidence BP than men who engage in IPA.
TX, El Paso 0.58 0.36 -0.08
The current study also showed that BP predicts all
TX, Houston 1.50 0.49 0.52
three forms of IPA physical, psychological, and sexual
TX, Lubbock 0.72 0.46 0.63
for both men and women. The majority of the research
TX, Mexican-American 0.88 0.39 0.36
thus far has concentrated mostly on male perpetrators of
TX, Non-Mexican-American 0.83 0.44 0.57
physical IPA, and although associations have been found
TX, Nacogdoches 1.34 0.41 0.45
between psychological IPA and BP in men (e.g., Dutton,
UT, Logan 1.30 0.46 0.16
Washington, DC 0.73 0.35 -0.30 1995), and physical IPA and BP in women (e.g., Stuart
et al., 2006), the current study extends our knowledge
Western Europe
by showing that, among nonclinical samples of men and
Belgium, Flemish-speaking 1.01 0.40 1.31
Belgium, Liege 1.39 0.48 1.07 women, BP predicts the three forms of IPA that are labeled
England, Leicester 0.80 0.28 0.20
IPA.
Germany, Freiburg 1.44 0.46 0.78
Although BP predicted all forms of IPA for both men
Germany, Moechengladbach 0.59 0.38 -0.15
and women, there were differences in the strength of these
Netherlands, Amsterdam 1.32 0.49 0.93
associations across the 67 sites in this study. Nonetheless,
Netherlands, Leiden 0.91 0.48 1.32
although the strength of the associations differed across
Portugal, Braga 1.39 0.54 0.92
sites, for the overwhelming majority of the sites, the slopes
Scotland, Glasgow 0.74 0.34 0.44
for the three forms of IPA were in the predicted direction
Sweden, Gavle 1.48 0.55 0.96
and were greater than zero. In addition, although the vari-
Switzerland, French-speaking 0.93 0.40 0.33
ance for the BP psychological IPA slope was significantly
Switzerland, German-speaking 0.91 0.39 0.63
different from zero, there was only about 1% variance in
this slope among the sites. Also of note, there were no sites
in which the slope of IPA and BP was low for all three forms
at sites with higher levels of physical IPA, although there
of IPA. However, there were some sites in which the slopes
was still significant variance (13.3%) left to be explained,
for one or two forms of IPA were close to or less than zero,
Ç2(65) = 381.75, p < .001. The prevalence of psychological
and thus, the reason for these differences in the strength
IPA at a site was also a significant, but negative, predictor
and direction of the associations was explored.
of the BP psychological aggression slope, ² =-0.01, SE =
We found little support for the hypothesis that the asso-
0.01, T(65) =-2.63, p < .05, explaining an additional 0.4%
ciation between BP and IPA would be stronger in sites with
of the variance in the slopes, and there was still significant
lower acceptance of IPA, using prevalence of each form of
variance (0.6%) among the sites, Ç2 (65) = 112.80, p <.001.
IPA as a proxy measure of acceptance. For physical IPA, the
Finally, the prevalence of sexual IPA was not a significant
opposite was found; sites with higher levels of IPA showed a
predictor of the BP sexual IPA slope, ² = 0.004, SE =
stronger association between physical IPA and BP. For psy-
0.003, T(65) = 1.27, ns.
chological IPA, the hypothesis was supported, but although
the BP psychological aggression slope did significantly dif-
fer among the sites, the amount of between-site variance
DISCUSSION
(1%) was small to begin, and therefore, adding this predic-
The results of this study support the hypothesis that BP tor to the model increased the variance explained by only
positively predicts physical, psychological, and sexual IPA 0.6%. For sexual IPA, the hypothesis was not supported.
for both men and women in nonclinical samples. Further, The reasons for these weak and contradictory findings may
the lack of moderation by gender shows that there is gender be because prevalence of IPA at a site is not a good proxy
300 HINES
for societal attitudes about IPA. Therefore, a more direct It is important to consider also the ways in which BP
measure of attitudes should be used in future research. predicts coercive control in intimate partner relationships.
Alternatively, the differences in the BP IPA slopes could Although the CTS2 is typically considered to be the best
be due to different manifestations of BP across cultures measure of IPA, it does not contain a scale to measure co-
(Chavira et al., 2003) and that the measure of BP did not ercive control, a set of tactics that many perpetrators of
fully capture the BP symptoms of some participants in some IPA use, and some researchers argue is a critical element
cultures. Thus far, however, studies show that BPD is found of IPA (e.g., Swan & Snow, 2002). Given the constellation
in every region of the world (Loranger et al., 1994), and the of symptoms of people with BP (e.g., anger, jealousy, ma-
few studies that have empirically evaluated possible cultural nipulation, self-harming behaviors, fear of abandonment),
differences in the manifestations of BPD have found few it is likely that BP would also predict coercive controlling
differences (Ikuta et al., 1994; Serman, Johnson, Geller, tactics in intimate relationships.
Kanost, & Zacharapoulou, 2002). Nonetheless, it is possi-
ble that nonclinical levels of BP could manifest themselves Caveats
differently across cultures.
The current study investigated whether there was gender
symmetry in the prediction of IPA. However, it is impor-
Future Research tant to note that gender symmetry in the prediction of IPA
does not mean that there is gender symmetry in the rate or
In addition to exploring the reasons for cultural differences
consequences of IPA. For example, this and other studies
in the prediction of IPA from BP, future research should
(e.g., Cantos et al., 1994; Hines & Saudino, 2003; Swan &
address some of the limitations of this study. The current
Snow, 2002) show that men use significantly more sexual
study used college students as its sample, and college stu-
IPA than women, although women who perpetrate phys-
dents may not be representative of the population in gen-
ical IPA do sexually assault their male partners at rates
eral, in that people who evidence high rates of either BP
that are surprisingly high (Swan & Snow, 2002); in the cur-
or IPA would be less likely to succeed in the college en-
rent study, women used significantly more types of physical
vironment. Moreover, the 67 sites that participated in the
and psychological IPA than did men, and their past-year
current study may not be representative of the countries
prevalence rates of these two forms of IPA were also sig-
and cities in which they are located, nor are they exhaustive
nificantly higher. Even so, there are reports that women
of all possible cultures from around the world. Thus, future
are more fearful, feel more threatened, are injured more,
studies should strive to obtain more representative data. It
and seek medical assistance at higher rates than men (e.g.,
is also important to stress that future studies assess the pre-
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Neidig, & Thorn, 1995; Laroche,
diction of IPA from BP longitudinally. Because the current
2005; Morse, 1995), and even though men do report fear
study was correlational, it is unknown whether BP caused
and injury as a result of IPA (e.g., Hines, Brown, & Dun-
IPA, IPA caused BP, or some third variable (e.g., stress)
ning, 2007), there probably is less gender symmetry in the
caused both. Given the fact that BP tends to manifest itself
consequences of IPA (Stets & Straus, 1990) than there is in
in adolescence or early adulthood and is relatively long-
the prediction of IPA.
lasting and stable thereafter (American Psychiatric Associ-
ation, 1994), it is likely that BP predicts IPA. Nonetheless,
Implications
given the relatively young age of this sample, it could be
the case that IPA influenced the development and course The current study provides evidence that BP predicts phys-
of BP. ical, psychological, and sexual IPA among both men and
Future studies should also use other measures of BP and women across university campuses worldwide. Although
IPA and multiple informants of IPA on a target individual the current study included only college students, it pro-
to further validate the present results. Because both IPA vided a test of these hypotheses cross-culturally, which few,
and BP were assessed through self-report, it could result in if any, previous studies on IPA have done. In addition, be-
inflated associations because response sets could influence cause this was a large sample of both male and female
self-reports of personality and IPA (Cooper, 2002). Thus, college students, possible gender differences in these as-
multiple informants (e.g., intimate partner) should be used. sociations could be investigated. The fact that none were
This is especially important for IPA because a meta-analysis found has important implications for the treatment of men
of 43 studies on physical IPA provided evidence that per- and women who use IPA. Male and female perpetrators of
petrators of both genders tend to underestimate the extent IPA should be assessed for evidence of BP and BPD, and
to which they use violence in their relationships (Archer, should be provided treatment that addresses these issues
1999). In addition, because our BP measure could not be where appropriate. Although traditionally BP is considered
used to infer a clinical diagnosis of BPD, future studies to be a stable characteristic that has a poor prognosis af-
should explore how clinical manifestations of BPD might ter diagnosis (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), re-
differentially predict IPA for men and women and whether cent evidence shows that certain types of therapy, such as
differences might occur across cultures.  Conversational Models of psychotherapy that meet twice
Borderline Personality and Aggression 301
Dutton, D. G. (1995). Male abusiveness in intimate relationships.
a week for 1 year (Stevenson, Meares, & D Angelo, 2005),
Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 567 581.
have shown success and long-term stability of therapy gains.
Dutton, D. G., & Browning, J. J. (1988). Power struggles and in-
Thus, male and female perpetrators of IPA who evidence
timacy anxieties as causative factors of violence in intimate
BP should undergo lengthy and intensive treatment for
relationships. In G. Russell (Ed.), Violence in intimate rela-
their BP. However, because there is no evidence as of yet
tionships (pp. 163 175). Great Neck, NY: PMA Publishing.
that successfully treating BP will result in a decrease in
Dutton, D. G., & Starzomski, A. J. (1993). Perpetrator character-
IPA, such treatment should be given alongside interven-
istics associated with women s reports of psychological and
tions that address other etiological influences on IPA (e.g.,
physical abuse. Violence and Victims, 8, 327 337.
alcohol abuse, experience of IPA in the family of origin;
Dutton, D. G., Starzomski, A. J., & Ryan, L. (1996). Antecedents
Mauricio et al., 2007).
of abusive personality and abusive behavior in wife as-
saulters. Journal of Family Violence, 11, 113 132.
Initial submission: August 28, 2007
Gelles, R. J. (1974). The violent home: A study of physical ag-
Initial acceptance: March 4, 2008
gression between husbands and wives. Beverly Hills, CA:
Final acceptance: May 6, 2008
Sage.
Giordano, P. C., Millhollin, T. J., Cernkovich, S. A., Pugh, M. D., &
Rudolph, J. L. (1999). Delinquency, identity, and women s
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