Bom Ultimate knowledge 2

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Management and Managers

Management

The process of getting things done efficiently and effectively through and with people.

Organizational performance

Measures how efficiently and effectively managers use resources to achieve goals and
satisfy customers.

Efficiency

Measure of how well or how productively resources are used.

Effectiveness

Measure of appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and of the degree to
which organization achieves the goals.

Organization

A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific goals.

A collectivity of people engaged in a systematic effort to produce a good or an activity.

Characteristics of an organization

purpose

people

structure

Managerial functions

planning (choose goals)

organizing (working together)

leading (coordinate)

controlling (monitor & measure)

Management compromises planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of resources to
achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently

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Planning

Identifying and selecting appropriate goals ( which goals should be persued? How should
the goal be achieved? How should the resources be allocated?)

Organizing

Structuring working relationships in a way that allow organizational members to work
together to achieve organizational goals.

Leading

motivating; articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organization members to
understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals.

Leadership involves a manager using power, influence, vision, persuasion, and
communication skills.

The outcome of leading function is high level of motivation and commitment from
employees to organization.

Controlling

Evaluating of how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain
or improve performance.

Managers monitor individuals, departments, and the organization to determine whether
organization desired performance has been reached

the outcome of controlling function is accurate measurement of performance and regulation
of efficiency and effectiveness

Managers

are individuals who are responsible for completing tasks, require the supervision of other
members or organizational resources

Resources

human

material

financial

technological/informational

natural

Management levels

Top managers

Middle managers

First line managers

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Managerial roles

Interpersonal [Figurehead role, Leader role, Liaison role]

Informational []Monitor role, Disseminator role, Spokesman role]

Decisional [Entrepreneur role, Disturbance handler role, Resource allocator role, Negotiator]

Managerial skills

Conceptual skills

Human skills

Technical skills

These skills are enhanced through formal training, reading, and practice.

Environment

Organizational environment

those forces outside its boundaries, that can impact it

all elements residing outside of an organization's boundary that have the potential to affect
some or all of the activities occurring in the organization.

Opportunities

openings for managers to enhance revenues and or open markets

Threats

issues that can harm an organization

Environmental dimensions

munificence

complexity

concentration

dynamism

turbulence

consensus

Task environment

Suppliers & distributors – manager buy products from global suppliers or make items
abroad and supply themselves. Each country or a brand often has a unique system of
distribution

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Customers & competitors – formerly district national markets are merging into a huge
global market. Managers often must customize products to fit the culture. Global
competitors present new threats.

General environment

Economical forces – effect the national economy and the organization;

Technological forces – skills and equipment used in design,production,distribution;

Sociocultural forces – result from changes in the social or national culture of society;

Demographic forces – result from changes in the nature, composition, diversity of a
population;

Political – Legal forces – results from changes in the political arena;

Global – results from changes in international relationships among other countries.

Stakeholders

Are the interest groups which have justifiable reasons for expecting and often for demanding
that the firm satisfy their claims an a responsible manner;

Are individuals or groups who can affect or are affected by the company’s activities.

Steps in analyzing stakeholders

Identification of the stakeholders;

Understanding the stakeholders’ specific claims;

Reconciliation of these claims and assignment of priorities to them;

Coordination of the claims with other elements of the company mission.

Environmental change

Refers to the degree to which elements in the task and general environment change over
time;

Types of environmental uncertainty

Regarding information availability accuracy and clarity;

Regarding cause-effect relations;

Regarding outcome preferences;

Deriving from a time span of a definitive feedback;

Deriving from an inability to assign probabilities to events.

Reducing environmental impact

Managers can counter environmental threats by reducing the no of forces;

All levels of managers should work to minimalize the potential impact of environmental
forces;

Managers can create new organizational structures to deal with the change

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Planning

Planning

Defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy and developing a
hierarchy of plans to achieve goals;

Identifying and selecting appropriate goals and courses of action;

Is the process used by managers to identify and select goals and courses for action for the
organization.

Reasons for planning

Sets standards to facilitate control;

Provides a direction;

Minimizes waste and redundancy;

Reduces the impact of a change

Good planning provides

participation;

sense of direction and purpose;

coordination;

control.

Planning principles

Planning needs to be based on real timely information;

Be action-based;

Identify risks and challenges;

Be ethical;

Planning efforts need to be measured and evaluated.

3 rules of stating objectives:

Spell out in quantifiable or measurable terms;

Specify deadline for an achievement;

Be challenging but achievable.

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Characteristics of objectives(SMART)

Specific (simple);

Measurable;

Attainable (achievable);

Realistic;

Timely (tangible)

Stages of planning process

Determining the organization’s mission and goals (define business);

Strategy formulation (analyze current situation & develop strategies);

Strategy implementation (allocate resources & responsibilities to achieve strategies).

Vision

The idea, concept of our organization (it’s not a goals, doesn’t have to fulfill any criteria)

Mission

A broad declaration of an organization’s purpose that identifies the organization’s
products and customers and distinguishes the organization from its competitors;

A main goal in the organization.

Mission should answer

What is the main goal of the organization?

What is the domain (business) of our organization?

Whose and which need does the organization fulfill?

Mission features

general;

real;

important for customers;

in accordance with general trends in society;

translating into a financial outcome.

Goals

Strategic (general, long-term, top management);

Tactic (the specification of strategic goals, middle-term, middle management);

Operational (the specification of tactic goals, short-term, low management)

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Barriers to planning

Environment;

Reluctance to establish goals:

unwillingness to give up alternative goals;

fear of failure;

a lack of organizational knowledge;

a lack of confidence.

Inadequate reward system;

Resistance to changes;

Time and an expense.

Organizing

Organization as a system

System that is composed of interrelated subsystems;

The survival or failure of the system is dependent on the interrelations of subsystems and
their contribution to the overall purpose of the system.

Primary activities

they directly concerns creating and delivering a product

inbound logistics;

operations;

outbound logistics;

marketing & sales;

service.

Support activities

they are not directly involved in production;may increase effectiveness and efficiency

procurement;

human resource;

management technology development;

infrastructure

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Organizing

the process by managers to establish working relationships among employees to achieve
goals

Organizational bonds

hierarchic;

functional;

technical;

informational.

Job design

Grouping tasks into specific jobs;

It helps determine:

What tasks are done;

How the tasks are done;

How many tasks are done;

In what order the tasks are done

Good job design

Allows for an employee input;

Gives employees a sense of accomplishment;

Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly;

Provides good work/rest schedules.

Key elements of organization structure

Work specialization;

The chain of command;

Span of control;

Authority

Responsibility

Centralization

Decentralization

Departmentalization

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Work specialization

a job is broken down into a number of steps;

each step is completed by a separate individual;

makes the efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers have.

The chain of command

is the continuous line of authority that extends from the highest level in an organization to
the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom.

Span of control

a number of employees that a manager can manage efficiently;

increased over the last years;

contingency variables impact the number.

Authority

rights inherent in managerial position to give orders and expect them to be followed;

related to one’s position-not the characteristics of person.

Responsibility

obligation to perform;

goes hand-in-hand with authority.

Centralization

a function of how much decision making authority is pushed down into lower levels

Decentralization

pushing down decision making authority to the lowest levels.

Departmentalization

five ways to departmentalize

function;

product;

customer;

geography;

process.

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Functional structure

Consist of departments such as marketing,production,finance etc

pros

workers can learn from other doing similar tasks;

easy for managers to monitor valuate workers.

cons

hard for one department to communicate with other;

managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.

Product structure

Consists of departments such as product A,product B etc

pros

Increases accountability for product performance;

Activities related to a specific product are under the direction of a single manager .

cons

Hard for one department to communicate with others;

Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company

Region structure/Geographic structure

Consists of departments such as Asia, Europe, and etc.

pros

Employees are close to customers;

A regional manager has flexibility needed to choose the products that best meets regional
customers

cons

Hard for one department to communicate with others;

Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.

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Market structure

Consists of departments based on customers’ problems and needs

pros

See Functional

cons

See Functional

Process structure

Units are organized around common skills needed to complete a particular process (testing,
payment)

pros

Offers are basics for homogeneous categorization of activities

cons

See Functional

Organization design

Flat structure

Have few levels of authority but a wide span of control(wide span of control,not many levels
of managers);

Tall structure

Have many levels of authority relative to the organization’s size(narrow span of
control,many levels of managers)

Simple structure

Owner/manager → employee, employee, employee;

Functional structure

Plant manager → manager engineering; m. accounting; m. information systems; m. human
resources; m. purchasing;

Divisional structure

Divisional divided by region of product;

Mechanistic structure

Tall (many departments and levels of management), extensive departmentalization,high
formalization, a limited information network;

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Organic structure

Flat (few departments, few levels of management), uses cross-hierarchical and cross-
functional teams, low formalization, participative decision making;

Matrix structures

Managers group people by function/product/market etc. and product/functions/market etc.
teams simultaneously;

results in a complex network of reporting relationships;

very flexible and can respond rapidly to changes;

each employee has two bosses what can cause problems,

Hybrid structure

The ability to break a large organization into many smaller ones;

It makes it much more easier to manage

Organizational structures types

span of control and number of levels of authority (flat and tall structures);

dominant organizational bonds (line structures, functional structures, ordnance structures,
technical structures)

Motivation

Motivation

Human force to act

Motivating

The process of motivating people in order to accomplish goals

Motive

An eternal factor;connected with motivation.

Incentive

An external factor, material/non-material, prizes/punishment, (connected with motivating).

Motivation process

unsatisfied need>tension>drivers(motivators)>search behaviour>satisfied need>reduction of
tension

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Kinds of motivation

intrinsic - behaviour is performed for its own sake;

extrinsic - baheviour is performed to acquire rewards

Theories of motivation

Content Theories - What motivates, factors determining motivation;

Process Theories – The process of motivating, how can we motivate?

Reinforcement Theories

Content Theories

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

(psychological,safety,social,esteem,self realization)

We are wanting animals

Our needs are arranged in hierarchy of importance

Herzberg’s two factors theory

focuses on outcomes that can lead to high motivation,job satisfaction and those that can
prevent dissatisfaction

motivation needs – (satisfiers) – lead to strong motivation and satisfaction when they are
present but do not cause much dissatisfaction when they are absent; related to nature of
work and how challenging it is;

hygiene needs – (dissatifiers) – cause much dissatisfaction then they are not present but do
not provide strong motivation when they are absent. They must be present at work before
motivators can be used to stimulate a person, related to the psychical & psychological
context of work.

Mcclelland’s theory

three needs theory – achievement, power, affiliation;

achievement is more important than reward (material or financial);

financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success not an end in itself;

feedback is essential,

achievement – motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing thing
better,

achievement – motivated people will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally
satisfy their needs,

Alderfer’s ERG

after lower level needs satisfied person seeks higher needs;

when unable to satisfy higher needs lower needs motivation is raised (regression)

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Process Theories

Expectancy theory Vroom

Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel that:

high levels of effort lead to high performance,

high performance will lead to attainment of desired outcomes.

Vroom’s theory consists of three areas:

expectancy – perception that effort (input) will result in a level of performance,

instrumentality – performance leads to outcomes,

valance – how desirable each outcome is to a person,

Equity theory Adams

Considers workers’ perception of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs,

Notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives.

Reinforcement theories

Learning theory skinner

Focuses on linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation;

Learning – permanent change in person’s knowledge or behaviour resulting from practice or
experience;

Operant conditioning – people learn to do thing leading to desired outcomes and avoid doing
things with adverse outcomes;

positive reinforcement – people get desired outcomes when they perform needed work
bahaviour;

negative reinforcement – a manager eliminates undesired outcomes once the desired
behaviour occurs.

Suggestions for motivating employees

recognize individuals;

match people to jobs;

use goals;

make goals attainable;

individualize rewards;

link rewards to performance;

check the system for equity;

don’t ignore money

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Pay and motivation

expectancy theories - pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) must be high so that
motivating will be high;

need theories – pay is used to satisfy many needs;

equity theories – pay is given in relation to inputs;

learning theories – outcomes (pay) are distributed upon performance of functional
behaviours

Controlling

3 types of control

feedforward – anticipate problems before they occur;

concurrent – manage problems as they occur;

feedback – manage problems after they have arisen;

Steps in organizational control

1. establish the standards of performance goals targets against which performance is to be

evaluated;

2. measure actual performance;
3. compare actual performance against chosen standards of performance;
4. evaluate the result and initiate corrective actions if the standard is not being achieved.

Bureaucratic control

control of bahaviour by means of a comprehensive system of rules.

Clan control

control exerted on individuals and groups in an organization by shared values, norms,
standards of behaviour and expectations.

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Leadership

Leadership:

The process where a person exerts (wywierać) influence over others and inspires, motivates, and
directs their activity to achieve goals.

Leader:

The person exerting the influence

Personal Leadership style:

the ways leaders choose to influence others.

Managers

vs

Leaders

Appointed and have formal
authority

May have managerial authority
and influence others

Charismatic Leadership

ability to articulate a vision

appearance as change agent

environmental sensitivity

extraordinary behaviour

self confidence

strong conviction (przekonanie)

vision

Visionary Leadership

(three Ex rule)
Express the vision ------> Extend the vision ------> Explain the vision

<--------------

<------------------

Power – additional capacity to influence decisions

Enable managers to be a leaders and influence subordinates to achieve goals.

Coercive (represyjna)

Leadership

Reward

Referent

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Expert

Sources of power

Legitimate power – managers authority resulting from their management, position in the
company;

Reward power – based on the manager's ability to give or withhold rewards;

Coercive power – based on ability to punish others;

Expert power – based on a special skills of leader;

Referent power – result from personal characteristics of leader who earn worker's respect,
loyalty and admiration.

Leadership models

1)Trait model – Sought (poszukiwany) to identify personal characteristics responsible for
all effective leadership;
2)Personal – Behavioural Model – personal qualities (przymioty) behavioural (związane z
zachowaniem) patterns;

Michigan Studies

Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

The Blake Gordon Grid

Theory X and Y

Reddin 3D model
3)Situational model – identification of key situational factors and their importance;

Contingency theory;

Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton;

Tridimensional theory;

House path goal;
4)Transactional model – Leading in therms of transaction – efforts and benefits (wysiłek i
marchewka);
5)Transformational model – Leader as a change agent – more individual, focuses on
inspiration and motivation. Followers are expected to think by themselves, not only what
they are told;

*changes and order by Milena : )

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1)Trait model

Drive

<------->

Desire to lead

Honesty and integrity
(prawość)

<------->

Self confidence

Intelligence

<------->

Job relevant knowledge

2)Personal – Behavioral model

Consideration – leaders show care towards workers (employee-centered)

Initiating structure – managers take steps to make sure work is done. (Done by assigning
work, setting goals, etc. ; Job-oriented)

- Identifiable leadership behaviour

Autocratic – centralized authority, limits participation.

Democratic – full participation, discussion.

Laissez-Faire – gives team members full freedom.

Theories

Michigan Studies

Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

The Blake Gordon Grid

Theory X and Y

Reddin 3D model

Michigan Studies

Job centered leadership

Employee centered leadership

structure a job

focus on human aspects

closely supervision

building effective work group

determines standards

giving subordinates freedom.

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Tannenbaum and W. Schmidt - Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

The Blake Mouton Grid

Impoverished – a minimum effort to accomplish the work.

Produce or perish – task completion but little regard for the development and morale of
subordinates.

Middle of the road – adequate task completion and satisfactory morale are the goals

County Club – focuses on being supportive and considerate of employes; task completion is
not a primary concern.

Team Leader – facilitates production and morale by coordinating and integrating work-
related activities

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Reddin – 3D Model of leadership effectiveness

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3)Situational Model

The situational approach (metoda) requires leaders to demonstrate a strong degree of
flexibility

Managers style depends on a situation

Contingency theory

Leader – style theory

Tridimentional Leader

Path – Goal theory

Contingency (ewentualność) theory

'Effective leadership is contingent on both the characteristics of the leader and the situation.'
Characteristics:

Leader – member relations concerned with developing good relation with workers

Task structure – worker perform so the job gets done

Position power

relationship – oriented managers are the most effective in IV, V, VI, VII

task – centered managers are the most effective in I, II, III, VIII

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Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton

The importance of the quality of the decision

The extent to which the leader possesses sufficient information/expertise to make high –
quality decision

The extend to which the problem is structured.

The extend to which acceptance of commitment of the part of subordinates is critical to the
effective implementation of the decision

The probability that the leader's autocratic decisions will receive acceptance by subordinates

The extend to which the subordinates are motivated to obtain the organizational goals

The extend to which subordinates are likely to be in conflict over preferred solution

Tridimentional Leader Effectiveness Theory

'Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment if subordinates'

Comprised of: directive dimension, supportive dimension.

-The four leadership styles

Supporting (high supportive, low directive)

Delegating (low supportive, low directive)

Directing (low supportive, high directive)

Coaching (high supportive high directive)

-Directive behaviour

Helps group members in goal achievement via one-way communication throught:

giving directions

establishing goals and how to achieve them

methods of evaluation & time lines

defining roles

-Supportive behaviour

Assist group members via two-way communication in felling comfortable with themselves, workers
and situations

House’s Path-Goal Model

Workers are trying to achieve clearly identified outcomes.

Reward workers for high performance and attainment.

Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.

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-Motivating with path – goal

Directive behaviour: set goals, assign tasks, show how to do things

Supportive behaviour: look out for the workers best interest

Participate behaviour: give subordinates a say in matters that affects them

Achievement-oriented behavior: setting very challenging goals, believing in workers’
abilities.

-Steps to path – goal

Determine the outcomes your subordinates are trying to obtain

Reward subordinates for high-performance and goal attainment with the desired outcomes.

Clarify the paths to goal attainment for workers, remove obstacles to performance, and
express confidence in worker’s ability.

4; 5)Transformational leadership vs. Transactional leadership

Transformational leadership

- Make subordinates aware of how important their jobs are by providing feedback to the

worker

- Make subordinates aware of their own need for personal growth and development

- Motivate workers to work for the good of the organization, not just themselves

Transformational leaders

- Are charismatic and have a vision of how good things can be

- Openly share information with workers
- Are engaged in development of workers

Transactional leader:

Transformational leader

Recognizes what it is that we
want to get from work and
tries to ensure that we get it if
our performance merits it

Raises our level of awareness our
level of consciousness about the
significance and value of
designated outcomes, and ways of
reaching them

Exchanges rewards and
promises for our effort

Gets is transcend our own self
interest for the sake of the team or
organization

In responsive to our
immediate self interest if they
can be met by getting the
work done

Alters our need level (after
Maslow) and expands our range
of wants and needs.

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Managing conflicts

Manage conflicts elevate performance and help team be better.

Conflict:

the discord (dysonans) that arises when the goals, interests or values of different individuals
or groups are incompatible and those individuals or groups block one another's attempts to
achieve their objectives.

Is behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some others persons' good

Positive outcomes of conflict

better ideas are produced;

people forced to search for new approaches;

long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved;

clarification of individuals views

stimulation of interest and capacity

a chance for people to test their capacity (potential)

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Negative outcomes of conflict

some people feel defeated and demanded;

the distance between people increased;

a climate of mistrust and suspicion developed;

individuals and groups concentrated on their own narrow interests;

resistance developed rather than teamwork

an increase in employee turnover

Types of conflict

interpersonal conflict – between individual members of an organization, occurring because
of differences in their goals or values

intragroup conflict – conflict that arises within a group, team or department

intergroup conflict – conflict that occurs between groups, teams or department

interorganizational conflict – conflict that arises across the organization

Sources of conflict

different goals and time horizons;

differences in perception: results in different people attaching different meanings to the
same stimuli (bodźce), as perceptions become a person's reality, valuer judgments can be a
potential major source of conflict;

overlapping (zachodząca na siebie) authority – someone claims authority for the same
activities or tasks;

departmentalization and specialization – differing goals and internal environments of
departments are potential source of conflict;

task nature of work activities, task interdependence – when we are assigned a group
project and we are having a group member who consistently fails to get things done on
time, it creates some conflict because other group members are dependent on the late
member's contributions to complete the project;

different evaluation of reward system – the way in which independent group, teams or
departments are evaluated and rewarded;

scarce resources – individuals and groups have to fight for their share, the greater the
limitation of resources, the greater the potential for conflict;

status inconsistencies (niespójność), inequitable treatment – the fact that some
individuals, group, teams or departments within an organization can also create a conflict;

violation of territory – someone enters without permission (its my room!);

environmental change;

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individual sources – attitudes, personality characteristics, particular needs, illness, stress;

group sources – group skills, informal organization and group norms;

organizational sources – communication, authority sources, leadership style, managerial
behaviour;

the age gap;

role conflicts – arises from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and needs to be
distingued (?) from personality clashes; these arise from incompatibility between two or
more people as individuals even through their roles may be defined clearly and understand
fully;

role ambiguity – arises when there is lack of clarity as to the precise requirements of the
role and the person is unsure what to do;

role incompatibility – occurs when a person faces a situation in which simultaneous
different or contradictory expectations create inconsistency;

Role overload – is when a person faces too many separate roles or too great a variety of
expectations;

role underload – can arise when the prescribed role expectations fall short of the person's
own perception of their role.

Conflict management strategies

Compromise – a way of managing conflict in which part is concerned about not only it's
own goal accomplishment, but also the goal accomplishment of the other part and is willing
to engage in a give-and-take exchange and make concessions until a reasonable resolution of
the conflict reached.

Collaboration – a way of managing conflict in which both parts try to satisfy their goals by
coming up with an approach (zbliżenie) that leaves them both better off and does not require
concession (ustępstwo) on issues that are important to either part.

Accomodation – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which one part, typically with
a weaker power, gives in to the demands of other, more powerful part. It typically takes
place when one part has more power than other and is able to pursue it's goal attainment at
the expense of the weaker part. (buttery butter isn't it?)

Avoidance – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which the two parts try to ignore
the problem and do nothing to resolve their differences. The real source of a disagreement
has not been addressed, conflict is likely to continue and communication and cooperation
are hindered (powstrzymany)

Competition – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which each parts tries to
maximize it's own gain and has little interests in understanding the others parts position and
in arriving at a solution that will allow both parts to achieve their goals competition can
actually escalate levels of conflict as each parts tries to out maneuver the others.

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Strategies focused on individuals

Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict;

increasing diversity awareness and skills;

practicing job rotation or temporary assignments

using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary

Strategies focused on the whole organization

changing an organization's structure or culture;

altering the source of conflict.

Other strategies

clarification of goals and objectives;

resource distribution;

human resource management policies and procedures;

non-monetary reward;

development of interpersonal/group process skills;

group activities

leadership and management;

organizational processes;

socio-technological approach.

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Communicating

Communication

the transfer and understanding of meaning

Interpersonal communication

between two or more people

Organizational communication

all the patterns, network and systems of communication within organization.

Functions of communication

acts to control member behaviour in several ways;

encourage motivation

provides a release for emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs

provides information;

The interpersonal communication process

Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
(being a piórkowska...)

- Interpersonal level

filtering;

selective perception of the receiver;

frame of difference, (helps interpret complex info);

emotions;

informational overload ,(too much info may be too much for our receiver);

defensiveness (being fear of sth. guilty, being judgmental);

nonverbal cues;

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- Organizational level

hierarchical (barriers resulting from a formal structure);

functional (resulting from differences between functional departments);

- Cultural level

national culture (different countries, different nations);

high/low context, (situational level);

stereotyping;

ethnocentrism, (eg. 'our country is the best')

cultural distance

Overcoming the communication barriers at the interpersonal level

use feedback

improve sending skills – simplify language, organize writing as the logical thought process
(reports, memos), understand the member of the team;

improve listening skills – be more open minded, develop empathy, listen actively, constrain
emotions, observe nonverbal clues.

Model of communication

verbal communication – oral ( conversation, speeches, telephone calls, video conferences),
written (letters, memos, reports, emails)

nonverbal communication – dress, speech, intonation, gesture, facial expression.

Characteristics of communication channels

- formal communication channel

authorized, planned and regulated by the organization;

reflect the organization formal structure;

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define who has responsibility for information dissemination (rozpowszechnianie,) and
indicate the paper recipients of work – related information;

may be modified by the organization;

minor to serve consequences for ignoring them;

-informal communication channel

develop through interpersonal activities of team members;

not specified by the organization;

may be short-lived or long-lasting;

are more often lateral than vertical;

information flow can be very fast;

used for both work – related and network information.

Communication network

- The wheel

better for simple tasks - one person responsible
for all spreading information; in most of cases is
not satisfying, for participants, centralized, more
efficient

- The circle

decentralized, less efficient, better for
complex tasks (communication), more
satisfying,

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- The all-channel (or comcon) network.

decentralized, very high level of
interaction, no leadership, very high level
of satisfaction, better for short term
problems (no management)

-A 'Y' or chain network

centralized (high level), simple tasks but can be used for
complex tasks as well, leadership, satisfaction-low (how is it
counted?
), connection between all members

background image

Effective Groups And Teams

The two characteristics distinguishing teams from groups:

intensity (team is more intense)

a specific, overriding team goal

Groups and teams contributions to organizational effectiveness (a competitive

advantage)

enhancing performance

increasing responsiveness to customers

increasing innovation

increasing motivation and satisfaction

Types of groups and teams:

formal - cross functional; cross-cultural (different types of nationality); top management;
research and development; command groups, talk forces, virtual teams (technology to
communicate);

informal – friendship groups, interest groups.

Key elements of group dynamics:

group size

group tasks (task independence: pooled (dla wszytskich), sequential, reciprocal (obopólny) –
command goals, share goals with tasks)

group roles

group leadership

group development (forming: creating; storming: having a lot of ideas; norming: establish
some roles; preforming: time of transformation; adjourning: prediction of our next
activities, establish actual

group norms (the right balance of conformity (zgodność) and deviance (i odchylenie))

background image

group cohesiveness (spoistość) ((suit to each other closiness about parts); consequences:
participation, conformity, group goal accomplishment).

Managing group and teams

motivating to achieve organizational goals;

reducing social loafing (pokromkowanie, podział)

helping to manage conflict effectively

background image

Managing change

Agenda

organizational change – a notion;

organizational change forces;

types of scale of change;

Grainer's model of change

Levins theory of change

evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour

managing change

Organizational change

The movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired
future state to increase it's efficiency and effectiveness

any alterations (=change) in people, structure or technology.

The process of accumulating organizational tension → change → adapting → temporary

disorganization/or/searching for efficiency before the change → Revealing effects of a new

organization → effectiveness stabilization → The process of accumulating organizational tension

→ change → adapting → etc.

Forces bringing about the need for change

external forces – market place; governmental laws; regulations; technology; labour markets;
economic change

internal forces – strategy, workforce, employee attitudes etc.

Types of change

evolutionary change – change that is gradual, incremental (narastający) and narrowly
focused;

background image

revolutionary change – change that is rapid, dramatic and broadly focused;

changing structure – work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of
control, centralization, formalization, job redesign or actual structural design;

changing technology – work processes, methods, and equipment

changing people – attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and behavior.

Scale of change

Fine tuning – at departmental level; making re-alignments (przegrupowanie) to ensure
(zapewnić) that there is match between strategy, structure, people and processes.

Incremental adjustment – bit by bit changes to match the changing environment; minor
modifications to strategies or structures.

Modular Transformation – major realignment of one or more departments or divisions,
downsizing, re-engineering.

Corporate transformation – frame-breaking (znalazłem tylko jako metafora sabotażu...)
effecting the whole organization; discontinuous or frame-breaking change.

Phases of emergent vs planned change

Fine tuning and incremental change are usually also seen as emergent, “unfolding
(rozwijając) as it happens”

The organization, an open system engages “naturally” in emergent change as it tries to
maintain equilibrium with its changing environment

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ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES

FOR CHANGE

TYPES OF CHANGE

Ansoff and

McDonell

(1990)

Strebel

(1996)

Stacey

(1996)

Tushman(19

88)

Dumphy and

Stace (1993)

Grundy

(1983)

Stacey

(1996)

Predictable

weak

Close to

certainty

Converging(fi

ne-tuning)

Fine-tuning

Smooth

incremental

closed

Forcastable

by

extrapolation

moderate

Close to

certainty

Converging

(incremental)

Incremental

adjustment

Bumpy

incremental

contained

Predictable

threats and

opportunities

Partially

predictable

opportunities

strong

Far from
certainty

Discontinuous

or frame-

breaking

Modular

transormation

discontinuo

us

Open-

ended

Unpredictabl

e surprises

Corporate

transormation

*Basia work : )

Logical incrementalism (fizolofia)

Quinn does not agree that change is either emergent or planned. Quinn believed that
although managers may have ab idea of the destination, they do not really plan change in
“big chunks (kloc, kawał)”

Quinn says that:

Managers are flexible about how to get to the destination;

managers arrive at strategic change through negotiation with stakeholders

managers allow strategic change to evolve (ewoluować) incrementally (przyrostująco), it is
based on agreed purposes and involves content critical re-assessment (ponowną ocenę);

the planned change process involves opportunist learning as it goes along.

Logical instrumentalism is both emergent and planned (it is ovious)

Some theorists think that change might be neither wholly emergent, nor wholly planned

instead, change may reflect the organization's life cycle

Greiner identifies 4 stages and 5 phases though which organizations go as they grow nsd
develop.

background image

Lewin's Force – Field theory of change

To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for
change, reduce resistance to change or do both simultaneously.

STAGE 0

the need of change

STAGE 1 – unfreezing:

preparing for the need of change;

increasing the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the status quo;

decreasing the restraining forces that resist change and push behaviour toward the status quo

creating in people motivation needed to make change.

STAGE 2 – changing to a new state:

occurring new reactions, feelings, opinions, beliefs;

internalization ( by creating situations encouraging to learn expected attitudes and behaviour

STAGE 3 – Refreezing to make the change permanent:

stabilization and integrating transformations in personality

rewarding and supporting by the change agent.

Evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour

The divergent phase, based on innovation, variety beginning when one organization
discovers a new business opportunity, the industry as a whole strive to create differentiated
products and services that add customer value

background image

Eventually a breakpoints occurs as the emphasis shifts to the convergent phase, based on
efficiency/survival, which begins with imitation of competitors' best features, and then leads
to an emphasis an reducing costs. Competitors converge an total quality management,
continual, improvement & re-engineering to cut costs and maintain market share. Only the
fittest survive.

RYS

Spotting the breakpoints

Formal methods include:

Environmental scanning;

Benchmarking;

Monitoring, data collection and data interpretation (detecting when a new divergent phase is
about to begin in more difficult because the new wave of innovation cannot yet be seen;

Informal methods include

Open minded attitude;

Cooperation across the organization;

Culture supporting innovation and change

Managing change (steps in the organizational change)

Assessing the need for change

recognizing that there is a problem

identifying the source of the problem

Deciding on the change to make

deciding what the organization's ideal future state would be

identifying obstacles to change

Implementing the change

deciding whether change will occur from the top down or form the bottom down (??)

introducing and managing change

Evaluating the change

compering prechange performance with postchange performance

using benchmarking


Document Outline


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